1. INTRODUCTION
1. English literary history
1.1. Literature in its social, cultural and intellectual contexts
Texts or literature in general never in isolation, but in a context
- Relating texts and their content/structure to broader historical considerations: geography,
culture, …
- Dependent on or influenced by these contexts
Text as a product of factors
o Ex. Why did people start writing sonnets in the 16th century?
Why did erotic poetry become popular in 17th century? Was it as a statement?
TEXTS AS PART OF LITERARY HISTORY
o Literature has a history of its own as well
o Literary traditions (individual to specific regions, ex. English literature)
o Where does this history start?
o Influence of and competition with older models (both in their own language or other
languages)
Old literature influences new literature BUT newer literature can change the
perception of older texts
Ex. Beowulf and the ‘recent reinterpretation’ of JRR Tolkien
English literature in historical AND social, cultural and intellectual context
1.2. ‘History’
The problems of historiography
determining beginning & end:
- Why start at 600?
o 500: Books arrive in England, due to the fact that Christianisation and written culture are
becoming more and more popular
o 597: Agustine is sent by the pope to England to re-Christianise the country after the Angels
(pagans) took over England.
He brings books people start writing things down written recordings of ‘English’
literature marks the start of the literary history
only after 597 do we have written statements of oral stories and conversations
- Why end at 1800?1
o Romanticism around 1800 changes our perspective on literature
o Lots of anthologies use 1800 as a turning point, it’s a convention
o Not extremely strict,
ex. ELH sometimes discusses Jane Austen books published after 1800, other stories
published before 1800 are not discussed in the first period
it’s all about context and the tradition the story follows
Jane Austen has both a modern and a more ‘conservative’ vibe, depending on the
works, but overall she’s more rational and conservative than we credit her for and
thus belongs to the ‘tradition’ with the works before 1800
1
In ELH II
1
,Change and continuity
History is a balance between change and continuity
Literary history pays attention to both BUT there’s a bias towards ‘innovators’ in literary history?
- Continuity
o new works follow and are influenced by old works, albeit modified
o Tradition and use (and modification) of old models and structures
o Imitation, translation and adaptation of existing works (imitatio & aemulatio)
- Change
o Adaptation and modification also brings along changes and innovations
Change and continuity often happen at the same time and are both important for literary history
BUT bias towards innovation
o Importance of evolution from then to now
o Not per se better than tradition but from historical point of view it is more interesting
o not everyone innovates, things change gradually, yet those who do not innovate tend to
be forgotten
1.3. ‘Literature’
What is literature?
No consensus as to what constitutes ‘literature’
Written vs. oral works
Fictional vs. non-fictional
…
Definition of literature changes through time
! importance of turning point around 1800: romanticism changes that definition radically!
o Ex. Shakespeare barely spoke of literature? Didn’t he have a concept of literature? Probably
did Poetry or Poesy
o What is seen as literature depends on the time and is also sometime called differently (ex.
Shakespeare: poetry)
o Different criteria
o literature vs Literature debate
ex. Harry Potter, Beowulf,… what do we put where and will that change later?
ROLAND BARTHES: “LITERATURE IS WHAT GETS TAUGHT”
Whose authority determines what is ‘Literature’?
o who ‘teaches’ literature (in Barthes statement)?
o No one is infallible
Who gets to decide what literature is? Who decides the beginning and end to the history?
A ‘history of literature’
Mostly a history of WRITING, but what about a history of READING?
- Without readers there would be no literature
- Different readers have different interpretations
History of reading: more sociocultural, not literary; it’s more about opinion, interpretation,…
than what’s written
Different works would be ‘promoted’ in a history of reading because some important
literary works were not that popular, while more conventional works where
2
, 1.4. ‘English’
Contemporary literature
What defines ‘English’ literature?
- English / English-speaking
= Literature written and produced in countries where English is either an official language or a
language of culture
a lot of countries, not just England!
English literature: from England/Britain (narrow sense) or English-speaking nations (broad
sense)?
- Britain also not only just English
PROBLEM! (especially for contemporary literature)
English literature 600-1800
Problem already existed in 600-1800
- British Isles / England
o 19th century: British Empire expands to ¼ of the world!
o before 1800: expansion was already developing
already started having colonies (and had already lost colonies, ex. USA)
‘independent’ ex-colonies like the USA were politically independent, but not
culturally ( literature)
Colonies also part of England and therefore part of English literature?
English literature largely still the literature of England
- Britain vs. England
o Britain: England, Scotland, Wales (& Ireland)
o However: British literature = English literature
very little Scottish, Irish,… literature in the canon
it’s a sort of dialect BUT has its own culture and traditions and literature
Scottish writers in the Norton canon doesn’t represent themselves as Scottish
but more as British
o Norton: anthology of ENGLISH literature vs. Longman anthology of BRITISH literature
(not that many differences)
- Language(s) in the British Isles
o Not only English but also Gaelic,… also had culture and literature
o Dominated by English but they did survive
Even restricted to the British Isles: still a problem to define English literature!
2. The 19th-century nation state and the rise of literary history
2.1. Equation
- Before 19th century: no ‘national’ or ‘vernacular’ literature, mostly Greek or Latin
(English as a (study) subject did not exist)
- Since 19th century: rise of a (national) literary history and ‘modern’ literature
19th century: great age of the nation state: country = a nation
3
, EQUATION: NATION = PEOPLE = CULTURE = LANGUAGE
o NATION : not only the king who is the identity of the nation, but identified by the PEOPLE
(democratic ideal) : people > king
o PEOPLE? A people = group of individuals with a common CULTURE
o CULTURE?
Habits and traditions ?
Essential part: share a common LANGUAGE
A NATION should have its own LANGUAGE
Every own language should have their own nation?
ex. Germany not a political nation but a cultural unity should have its own nation,
own country (idem for Italy,…)
Language and nation give an identity to a people
- Literary history is the product of three factors:
HIPPOLYTE TAINE: ‘RACE, MOMENT, ENVIRONMENT’
o Histoire de la Litterature Anglaise (1864-1872): illustrates ‘race, moment, environment’
by focusing on English literature (a very prestigious literature at the time)
o RACE2: not about colour or genetics, but about the ‘people’ in cultural terms
o MOMENT: what happens in a particular moment (develops through time)
Historical and contextual influence
If the context changes, literature changes as well
Sometimes people write in the old way, but they are often left out because they are
less important for the evolution
o ENVIRONMENT:
the physical and geographical (and even meteorological!) environment
social class, religion and religious differences, education,…
according to Taine: every (national) ‘literature’ is different because of a different
development
2.2. Problems with that equation
- As mentioned before, the English language doesn’t always coincide with the ‘English’ nation
- Another problem is the changes in a language over a period of time
English as a language constantly changes: old English is barely recognizable now (or even
just a few centuries later)
What do we count as English? Can we still appreciate old literature? Part of studying literature
is appreciating the old literature but there is certain disagreement
2.2.1. Old English: Beowulf
Beowulf as English literature
Beowulf (ca. ?) is often seen as the first ‘great text’ of English literature (ex. in many
anthologies) but there is a certain debate about it
- Written in old English, barely readable now
- Original transcript seems closer to Dutch or Swedish,.. than to English now
is this what the English are?
- ‘modern translations’: Poetry or prose?
o Translations as both, gives very different experiences
o Used to be a prose text in the anthologies, now a poetic text
Even anthologies change constantly!!
2
Controversial: race like we see race now? Not exactly, more like a nation
4
1. English literary history
1.1. Literature in its social, cultural and intellectual contexts
Texts or literature in general never in isolation, but in a context
- Relating texts and their content/structure to broader historical considerations: geography,
culture, …
- Dependent on or influenced by these contexts
Text as a product of factors
o Ex. Why did people start writing sonnets in the 16th century?
Why did erotic poetry become popular in 17th century? Was it as a statement?
TEXTS AS PART OF LITERARY HISTORY
o Literature has a history of its own as well
o Literary traditions (individual to specific regions, ex. English literature)
o Where does this history start?
o Influence of and competition with older models (both in their own language or other
languages)
Old literature influences new literature BUT newer literature can change the
perception of older texts
Ex. Beowulf and the ‘recent reinterpretation’ of JRR Tolkien
English literature in historical AND social, cultural and intellectual context
1.2. ‘History’
The problems of historiography
determining beginning & end:
- Why start at 600?
o 500: Books arrive in England, due to the fact that Christianisation and written culture are
becoming more and more popular
o 597: Agustine is sent by the pope to England to re-Christianise the country after the Angels
(pagans) took over England.
He brings books people start writing things down written recordings of ‘English’
literature marks the start of the literary history
only after 597 do we have written statements of oral stories and conversations
- Why end at 1800?1
o Romanticism around 1800 changes our perspective on literature
o Lots of anthologies use 1800 as a turning point, it’s a convention
o Not extremely strict,
ex. ELH sometimes discusses Jane Austen books published after 1800, other stories
published before 1800 are not discussed in the first period
it’s all about context and the tradition the story follows
Jane Austen has both a modern and a more ‘conservative’ vibe, depending on the
works, but overall she’s more rational and conservative than we credit her for and
thus belongs to the ‘tradition’ with the works before 1800
1
In ELH II
1
,Change and continuity
History is a balance between change and continuity
Literary history pays attention to both BUT there’s a bias towards ‘innovators’ in literary history?
- Continuity
o new works follow and are influenced by old works, albeit modified
o Tradition and use (and modification) of old models and structures
o Imitation, translation and adaptation of existing works (imitatio & aemulatio)
- Change
o Adaptation and modification also brings along changes and innovations
Change and continuity often happen at the same time and are both important for literary history
BUT bias towards innovation
o Importance of evolution from then to now
o Not per se better than tradition but from historical point of view it is more interesting
o not everyone innovates, things change gradually, yet those who do not innovate tend to
be forgotten
1.3. ‘Literature’
What is literature?
No consensus as to what constitutes ‘literature’
Written vs. oral works
Fictional vs. non-fictional
…
Definition of literature changes through time
! importance of turning point around 1800: romanticism changes that definition radically!
o Ex. Shakespeare barely spoke of literature? Didn’t he have a concept of literature? Probably
did Poetry or Poesy
o What is seen as literature depends on the time and is also sometime called differently (ex.
Shakespeare: poetry)
o Different criteria
o literature vs Literature debate
ex. Harry Potter, Beowulf,… what do we put where and will that change later?
ROLAND BARTHES: “LITERATURE IS WHAT GETS TAUGHT”
Whose authority determines what is ‘Literature’?
o who ‘teaches’ literature (in Barthes statement)?
o No one is infallible
Who gets to decide what literature is? Who decides the beginning and end to the history?
A ‘history of literature’
Mostly a history of WRITING, but what about a history of READING?
- Without readers there would be no literature
- Different readers have different interpretations
History of reading: more sociocultural, not literary; it’s more about opinion, interpretation,…
than what’s written
Different works would be ‘promoted’ in a history of reading because some important
literary works were not that popular, while more conventional works where
2
, 1.4. ‘English’
Contemporary literature
What defines ‘English’ literature?
- English / English-speaking
= Literature written and produced in countries where English is either an official language or a
language of culture
a lot of countries, not just England!
English literature: from England/Britain (narrow sense) or English-speaking nations (broad
sense)?
- Britain also not only just English
PROBLEM! (especially for contemporary literature)
English literature 600-1800
Problem already existed in 600-1800
- British Isles / England
o 19th century: British Empire expands to ¼ of the world!
o before 1800: expansion was already developing
already started having colonies (and had already lost colonies, ex. USA)
‘independent’ ex-colonies like the USA were politically independent, but not
culturally ( literature)
Colonies also part of England and therefore part of English literature?
English literature largely still the literature of England
- Britain vs. England
o Britain: England, Scotland, Wales (& Ireland)
o However: British literature = English literature
very little Scottish, Irish,… literature in the canon
it’s a sort of dialect BUT has its own culture and traditions and literature
Scottish writers in the Norton canon doesn’t represent themselves as Scottish
but more as British
o Norton: anthology of ENGLISH literature vs. Longman anthology of BRITISH literature
(not that many differences)
- Language(s) in the British Isles
o Not only English but also Gaelic,… also had culture and literature
o Dominated by English but they did survive
Even restricted to the British Isles: still a problem to define English literature!
2. The 19th-century nation state and the rise of literary history
2.1. Equation
- Before 19th century: no ‘national’ or ‘vernacular’ literature, mostly Greek or Latin
(English as a (study) subject did not exist)
- Since 19th century: rise of a (national) literary history and ‘modern’ literature
19th century: great age of the nation state: country = a nation
3
, EQUATION: NATION = PEOPLE = CULTURE = LANGUAGE
o NATION : not only the king who is the identity of the nation, but identified by the PEOPLE
(democratic ideal) : people > king
o PEOPLE? A people = group of individuals with a common CULTURE
o CULTURE?
Habits and traditions ?
Essential part: share a common LANGUAGE
A NATION should have its own LANGUAGE
Every own language should have their own nation?
ex. Germany not a political nation but a cultural unity should have its own nation,
own country (idem for Italy,…)
Language and nation give an identity to a people
- Literary history is the product of three factors:
HIPPOLYTE TAINE: ‘RACE, MOMENT, ENVIRONMENT’
o Histoire de la Litterature Anglaise (1864-1872): illustrates ‘race, moment, environment’
by focusing on English literature (a very prestigious literature at the time)
o RACE2: not about colour or genetics, but about the ‘people’ in cultural terms
o MOMENT: what happens in a particular moment (develops through time)
Historical and contextual influence
If the context changes, literature changes as well
Sometimes people write in the old way, but they are often left out because they are
less important for the evolution
o ENVIRONMENT:
the physical and geographical (and even meteorological!) environment
social class, religion and religious differences, education,…
according to Taine: every (national) ‘literature’ is different because of a different
development
2.2. Problems with that equation
- As mentioned before, the English language doesn’t always coincide with the ‘English’ nation
- Another problem is the changes in a language over a period of time
English as a language constantly changes: old English is barely recognizable now (or even
just a few centuries later)
What do we count as English? Can we still appreciate old literature? Part of studying literature
is appreciating the old literature but there is certain disagreement
2.2.1. Old English: Beowulf
Beowulf as English literature
Beowulf (ca. ?) is often seen as the first ‘great text’ of English literature (ex. in many
anthologies) but there is a certain debate about it
- Written in old English, barely readable now
- Original transcript seems closer to Dutch or Swedish,.. than to English now
is this what the English are?
- ‘modern translations’: Poetry or prose?
o Translations as both, gives very different experiences
o Used to be a prose text in the anthologies, now a poetic text
Even anthologies change constantly!!
2
Controversial: race like we see race now? Not exactly, more like a nation
4
