Samenvatting Contemporary
Sociological Theories
H1 - The understanding of society
Theories are systematic and explicit ways to look at the world. Our ability to talk about certain
subjects depends on a range of facts about ourselves and our listeners. Sociological theories have
everything to do with the world, how we see it, understand it, and explain it, as well as how we act in
it and thus what it becomes.
The structure of sociological theory
Sociological theorists express their assumptions of hypotheses systematically and discuss in a
comprehensive way how far their theories explain social life. The provide new insights into behaviour
and workings of societies. These then affect ideas of people who haven’t even read the theory. The
theories relate different events to general principles that bring out their similarity. The classical
definition of a theory is deductive, it starts with definitions of general concepts; lays out rules about
how to classify the things we observe in terms of these categories; and puts forward a number of
general propositions about the concepts. A generalized theory allows to deduce statements about its
nature and behaviour. However, much of what is described as sociological theory consists of general
orientations toward substantive materials. The theories will however supply little in the way of
concrete propositions. Some may reject the idea of the method while studying human behaviour,
instead of focusing on patterns in behaviour or social structures, their general ideas describe how
people interact with each other in everyday life. Key concepts tie these different theories together
and help us notice parts of social life we might not have seen otherwise, making them the foundation
for understanding and analysing society.
Sociological theories differ in a few important ways:
1. Accept or reject the deductive model
2. The subjects they focus on
3. The assumptions behind their approach
4. The kinds of questions they think social theory should answer.
Subject matter
Theoretical perspectives divide the subject matter clearly between perspectives concerned with
larges scale characteristics of social structure (macrosociology) and those concerned with person-to-
person encounters and details of interactions (microsociology). This doesn’t mean that they exclude
each other, any theory that connects social positions to behaviour has to make assumptions about
human psychology and nature.
Assumptions
Underlying all sociological theories are assumptions about human nature. One key difference is
whether theorists see human behaviour as predictable and determined, or as creative and open-
ended. Theories also differ in whether they see human behaviour driven by values or by interests.
Methodology
One major way theories differ is in their methodology, whether they use deductive or inductive
reasoning:
1
, Deductive reasoning (top down): start with general ideas/hypotheses, define key concepts,
and then test them with data.
Inductive reasoning (bottom up): start with observations and gradually build concepts and
theories.
Phenomenology goes further rejecting the idea of a single objective reality, because people
construct their own realities from assumptions and interpretations.
Critical theorists also reject deductive positivist science for pretending to be value-free and
objective. They link social analysis to historical possibilities and see reason as a tool for
judging and changing society.
Theories differ in how much they rely on statistics and numerical data:
Deductive approaches use quantitative methods
Inductive theorists are usually sceptical whether numbers have meanings and if social life can
even be measured objectively.
Objectives
The last big difference between perspectives is their goals, whether they aim to describe, explain, or
predict social life.
Description: giving new terms and insights without tracing causes
Explanation: linking events to broader concepts
Prediction: trying to explain future events by looking at the past
Sociology hasn’t developed into a single science, but that doesn't mean theories contradict each
other uselessly. Each perspective helps us see society in a different way.
H2 – Functionalism
IN SHORT: Structural functionalism focuses on how different social institutions work together to
maintain stability, order, and balance in society.
Introduction:
Some argue that sociological analysis and functional analysis are the same. They involve examining
the role that an institution or type of behaviour plays in society and the way its related to other social
features and explaining it in essentially social terms. This perspective is labelled structural-
functionalism because of its focus on the functional needs of a social system that must be met if the
system is to survive. Social systems tend to perform certain tasks necessary for their survival, and
sociological analysis therefore, involves a search for the social structures that perform these tasks.
Functionalism defined:
the analysis of social and cultural phenomena in terms of the functions they perform in a
sociocultural system. Society is conceived of as a system of interrelated parts in which no part can be
understood in isolation of the whole. A change in any part is seen as leading to a certain degree of
imbalance, which results in changes in the system. Functionalism has a macro sociological focus since
its concerned with overall characteristics of social structure. In analysing social systems along these
lines, functionalists emphasize 3 elements:
1. The general interrelatedness, or interdependence of the system’s parts
2. The existence of a “normal” state of affairs, or state of equilibrium, comparable to the
normal or healthy state of an organism
3. The way that all the parts of the system reorganize to bring things back to normal
2
, There will always be some such reorganization and tendency to restore equilibrium (people work
harder to restore the system). In analysing this functionalists use shared values or generally accepted
standards of desirability as a central concept. Which means that individuals will be morally
committed to their society, it emphasizes the unity of society and what its members share.
Intellectual roots: Émile Durkheim and his forerunners
Comte derived his interest in how societies maintain order and how they experience progress. He
studied the conditions that make social stability possible. He explained the interdependence of the
parts of society when he wrote: “the statical study of sociology consists in the investigation of the
laws of action and reaction of the different parts of the social system”. He introduced the idea of
equilibrium, which means that society works best when its parts are in harmony. He borrowed the
idea from biology, where something that it broken repairs itself during healing different parts
cooperate to keep society stable.
Spencer is influential because of his idea of differentiation, which means that as societies grow larger,
the naturally develop different but interdependent parts that rely on one another. His evolution
theory is similar to Durkheim’s theory, but 2 major differences”
1. Spencer argued that social differentiation was an unavoidable necessity, while Durkheim did
not
2. Durkheim believed sociology should focus on social facts, patterns and forces outside the
individual, while spencer explained social progress in psychological terms, saying it was
driven by individuals pursuit of happiness.
Pareto took a different approach, he modelled society not on biology, but on a physiochemical
system where parts are interdependent and adjust to changes. The molecules of society were
individual, each with their own interests, drives and feelings. He was the first to clearly describe a
social system in terms of the relationship and dependencies among its parts.
Émile Durkheim
Durkheim viewed social evolution as a movement form the mechanical solidarity of tribal societies to
the organic solidarity characteristics of industrial societies. Primitive societies were characterized by
a strong collective conscience, which he defined as “the totality of beliefs and sentiments common to
average citizens of the same society”. As the division of labour increased, so did individualism, which
led to a decrease in collective conscience and a shift tot organic solidarity, characterized by the
interdependence of roles and a lack of self-sufficiency that held people together.
Durkheim set out to create a subject matter for sociology, he defined a social fact as that “which is
general over the whole of a given society whilst having an existence of its own, independent of its
individual manifestations”. He later elaborated on the meaning and used the term institution,
meaning the beliefs of behaviour instituted by the collectivity. He defined sociology as the science of
institutions, their genesis and their functioning. He viewed macrostructural phenomena as
sociology’s subject matter. He argued that social facts should be explained by social causes, not by
individual ones. His analysis of punishment illustrates both the strengths and weaknesses of his
approach. He argued that punishment is essentially a social reaction to crime. On the surface it
provides retribution and deterrence, but on a deeper level it helps maintain collective sentiments
(shared values). He was however less convincing when explaining why punishment exists in the first
place. He acknowledged that the function of something does not automatically explain its cause, but
then he contradicted himself. He claimed that punishment exists because it maintains collective
sentiments and that at the same time, collective sentiments cause punishment. punishment exists
because of the function it serves, but that function is also used as its cause (circular reasoning).
3
Sociological Theories
H1 - The understanding of society
Theories are systematic and explicit ways to look at the world. Our ability to talk about certain
subjects depends on a range of facts about ourselves and our listeners. Sociological theories have
everything to do with the world, how we see it, understand it, and explain it, as well as how we act in
it and thus what it becomes.
The structure of sociological theory
Sociological theorists express their assumptions of hypotheses systematically and discuss in a
comprehensive way how far their theories explain social life. The provide new insights into behaviour
and workings of societies. These then affect ideas of people who haven’t even read the theory. The
theories relate different events to general principles that bring out their similarity. The classical
definition of a theory is deductive, it starts with definitions of general concepts; lays out rules about
how to classify the things we observe in terms of these categories; and puts forward a number of
general propositions about the concepts. A generalized theory allows to deduce statements about its
nature and behaviour. However, much of what is described as sociological theory consists of general
orientations toward substantive materials. The theories will however supply little in the way of
concrete propositions. Some may reject the idea of the method while studying human behaviour,
instead of focusing on patterns in behaviour or social structures, their general ideas describe how
people interact with each other in everyday life. Key concepts tie these different theories together
and help us notice parts of social life we might not have seen otherwise, making them the foundation
for understanding and analysing society.
Sociological theories differ in a few important ways:
1. Accept or reject the deductive model
2. The subjects they focus on
3. The assumptions behind their approach
4. The kinds of questions they think social theory should answer.
Subject matter
Theoretical perspectives divide the subject matter clearly between perspectives concerned with
larges scale characteristics of social structure (macrosociology) and those concerned with person-to-
person encounters and details of interactions (microsociology). This doesn’t mean that they exclude
each other, any theory that connects social positions to behaviour has to make assumptions about
human psychology and nature.
Assumptions
Underlying all sociological theories are assumptions about human nature. One key difference is
whether theorists see human behaviour as predictable and determined, or as creative and open-
ended. Theories also differ in whether they see human behaviour driven by values or by interests.
Methodology
One major way theories differ is in their methodology, whether they use deductive or inductive
reasoning:
1
, Deductive reasoning (top down): start with general ideas/hypotheses, define key concepts,
and then test them with data.
Inductive reasoning (bottom up): start with observations and gradually build concepts and
theories.
Phenomenology goes further rejecting the idea of a single objective reality, because people
construct their own realities from assumptions and interpretations.
Critical theorists also reject deductive positivist science for pretending to be value-free and
objective. They link social analysis to historical possibilities and see reason as a tool for
judging and changing society.
Theories differ in how much they rely on statistics and numerical data:
Deductive approaches use quantitative methods
Inductive theorists are usually sceptical whether numbers have meanings and if social life can
even be measured objectively.
Objectives
The last big difference between perspectives is their goals, whether they aim to describe, explain, or
predict social life.
Description: giving new terms and insights without tracing causes
Explanation: linking events to broader concepts
Prediction: trying to explain future events by looking at the past
Sociology hasn’t developed into a single science, but that doesn't mean theories contradict each
other uselessly. Each perspective helps us see society in a different way.
H2 – Functionalism
IN SHORT: Structural functionalism focuses on how different social institutions work together to
maintain stability, order, and balance in society.
Introduction:
Some argue that sociological analysis and functional analysis are the same. They involve examining
the role that an institution or type of behaviour plays in society and the way its related to other social
features and explaining it in essentially social terms. This perspective is labelled structural-
functionalism because of its focus on the functional needs of a social system that must be met if the
system is to survive. Social systems tend to perform certain tasks necessary for their survival, and
sociological analysis therefore, involves a search for the social structures that perform these tasks.
Functionalism defined:
the analysis of social and cultural phenomena in terms of the functions they perform in a
sociocultural system. Society is conceived of as a system of interrelated parts in which no part can be
understood in isolation of the whole. A change in any part is seen as leading to a certain degree of
imbalance, which results in changes in the system. Functionalism has a macro sociological focus since
its concerned with overall characteristics of social structure. In analysing social systems along these
lines, functionalists emphasize 3 elements:
1. The general interrelatedness, or interdependence of the system’s parts
2. The existence of a “normal” state of affairs, or state of equilibrium, comparable to the
normal or healthy state of an organism
3. The way that all the parts of the system reorganize to bring things back to normal
2
, There will always be some such reorganization and tendency to restore equilibrium (people work
harder to restore the system). In analysing this functionalists use shared values or generally accepted
standards of desirability as a central concept. Which means that individuals will be morally
committed to their society, it emphasizes the unity of society and what its members share.
Intellectual roots: Émile Durkheim and his forerunners
Comte derived his interest in how societies maintain order and how they experience progress. He
studied the conditions that make social stability possible. He explained the interdependence of the
parts of society when he wrote: “the statical study of sociology consists in the investigation of the
laws of action and reaction of the different parts of the social system”. He introduced the idea of
equilibrium, which means that society works best when its parts are in harmony. He borrowed the
idea from biology, where something that it broken repairs itself during healing different parts
cooperate to keep society stable.
Spencer is influential because of his idea of differentiation, which means that as societies grow larger,
the naturally develop different but interdependent parts that rely on one another. His evolution
theory is similar to Durkheim’s theory, but 2 major differences”
1. Spencer argued that social differentiation was an unavoidable necessity, while Durkheim did
not
2. Durkheim believed sociology should focus on social facts, patterns and forces outside the
individual, while spencer explained social progress in psychological terms, saying it was
driven by individuals pursuit of happiness.
Pareto took a different approach, he modelled society not on biology, but on a physiochemical
system where parts are interdependent and adjust to changes. The molecules of society were
individual, each with their own interests, drives and feelings. He was the first to clearly describe a
social system in terms of the relationship and dependencies among its parts.
Émile Durkheim
Durkheim viewed social evolution as a movement form the mechanical solidarity of tribal societies to
the organic solidarity characteristics of industrial societies. Primitive societies were characterized by
a strong collective conscience, which he defined as “the totality of beliefs and sentiments common to
average citizens of the same society”. As the division of labour increased, so did individualism, which
led to a decrease in collective conscience and a shift tot organic solidarity, characterized by the
interdependence of roles and a lack of self-sufficiency that held people together.
Durkheim set out to create a subject matter for sociology, he defined a social fact as that “which is
general over the whole of a given society whilst having an existence of its own, independent of its
individual manifestations”. He later elaborated on the meaning and used the term institution,
meaning the beliefs of behaviour instituted by the collectivity. He defined sociology as the science of
institutions, their genesis and their functioning. He viewed macrostructural phenomena as
sociology’s subject matter. He argued that social facts should be explained by social causes, not by
individual ones. His analysis of punishment illustrates both the strengths and weaknesses of his
approach. He argued that punishment is essentially a social reaction to crime. On the surface it
provides retribution and deterrence, but on a deeper level it helps maintain collective sentiments
(shared values). He was however less convincing when explaining why punishment exists in the first
place. He acknowledged that the function of something does not automatically explain its cause, but
then he contradicted himself. He claimed that punishment exists because it maintains collective
sentiments and that at the same time, collective sentiments cause punishment. punishment exists
because of the function it serves, but that function is also used as its cause (circular reasoning).
3
