NEPHROLOGY EXAM SCRIPT 2025/2026 QUESTIONS AND
SOLUTIONS GRADED A+ TIP
✔✔Arcuate Artery - ✔✔-runs along the edge of the renal pyramids at the border of the
renal cortex and renal medulla
✔✔Automatic Bladder - ✔✔-condition where spinal cord is damaged in the sacral
region, no conscious control over the onset or duration of urination
✔✔Basolateral Membrane - ✔✔-forms the base and sides of the cell and is in contact
with the interstitial fluid between the nephron and peritubular capillaries--can absorb.
(prox. con. tubule)
✔✔Bicarbonate Buffer System - ✔✔-depends upon the balance of H2CO3 and the H+
and HCO3-
-acid added: a large proportion of H+ released from the acid binds to HCO3- to form
H2CO3 and only a small percentage remains as free H+: results in RESISTANCE to
large decrease in pH
✔✔Bowman's Capsule - ✔✔-the enlarged end of the nephron surrounding the
glomerulus
-fluid from glomerulus enters the bow. cap. and flows into the proximal con. tub.
✔✔Calyx Minor - ✔✔-funnel-shaped chambers into which renal papillae extend
-Urine formed in the kidney passes through a renal papilla at the apex into the minor
calyx
✔✔Calyx Major - ✔✔-larger funnels formed by many pyramids' minor calyces
-enlarge to form renal pelvis to narrow to become a ureter
✔✔Carbonic Anhydrase - ✔✔-involved in acid-base regulation
-an enzyme that catalyzes the reaction between water and carbon dioxide
-increases speed of reaction so equilibrium can be achieved quickly
✔✔Central Diabetes Insipidus - ✔✔-failure of ADH secretion
-pituitary tumors, head trauma, cranial surgery, or genetic abnormalities
-excess urine secretion, dilute, causes dehydration and ion imbalances
✔✔Collecting Duct - ✔✔-distal tubules empty here and from here it carries the fluid from
the cortex through the medulla and empties into a papillary duct
✔✔Conjugation - ✔✔-process where substances enter the glomerular filtrate and
reabsorbed passively--- liver cells attach other molecules to them in order to make them
more water-soluble
, ✔✔Countercurrent Mechanism - ✔✔-consists of two parallel tubes through which fluid
flows in opposite directions. Blood flows through the vasa reca without destroying the
medullary concentration gradient.
✔✔Cystitis - ✔✔-is an inflammation of the bladder, UTI (more common in women)
✔✔Diabetes Mellitus - ✔✔-inadequate secretion of insulin or diminished ability to
respond to insulin
1: diminished or absent insulin secretion
2: insulin resistance
✔✔Distal Convoluted Tubule - ✔✔-has to touch afferent arteriole
-secretion of acids and toxins happen here
-aldosterone increases Na+ reab.
- regulates the pH of urine by secreting protons and absorbing bicarbonate
✔✔Diuretics - ✔✔-increase rate of urine formation
-Alcohol: inhibits ADH secre. and thus increases amount of urine and dehydration
-Caffeine: increases glomerular filtration rate and decreases the reabsorption of NA+
✔✔Edema - ✔✔-fluid shift from the plasma to the interstitial fluid
-increased permeability of cap. walls due to inflammation, proteins diffuse into inerst.
fluid and water follows
✔✔Efferent Arteriole - ✔✔-arise from the glomerular capillaries and carry blood away
from glomeruli, gives rise to plexus of capillaries
✔✔Extracellular Fluid - ✔✔- includes all the fluid outside of the cells, one third of body's
water
✔✔Filtrate - ✔✔-the fluid that passes across the filtration membrane
✔✔Filtration - ✔✔-movement of materials across the filtration membrane into the
Bowman's Capsule to form filtrate
-movement of water and small solutes across the filt. mem. as a result of pressure
difference
✔✔Glomerular Nephritis - ✔✔-inflammation of the filtration membrane within he renal
corpuscle
-increased permeably of the filtration membrane and accumulation of numerous WBC in
the area
-proteins enters filtrate and urine, more damage= more RBC and WBC entering
✔✔Glomerulus - ✔✔-a network of capillaries
-FILTRATION
SOLUTIONS GRADED A+ TIP
✔✔Arcuate Artery - ✔✔-runs along the edge of the renal pyramids at the border of the
renal cortex and renal medulla
✔✔Automatic Bladder - ✔✔-condition where spinal cord is damaged in the sacral
region, no conscious control over the onset or duration of urination
✔✔Basolateral Membrane - ✔✔-forms the base and sides of the cell and is in contact
with the interstitial fluid between the nephron and peritubular capillaries--can absorb.
(prox. con. tubule)
✔✔Bicarbonate Buffer System - ✔✔-depends upon the balance of H2CO3 and the H+
and HCO3-
-acid added: a large proportion of H+ released from the acid binds to HCO3- to form
H2CO3 and only a small percentage remains as free H+: results in RESISTANCE to
large decrease in pH
✔✔Bowman's Capsule - ✔✔-the enlarged end of the nephron surrounding the
glomerulus
-fluid from glomerulus enters the bow. cap. and flows into the proximal con. tub.
✔✔Calyx Minor - ✔✔-funnel-shaped chambers into which renal papillae extend
-Urine formed in the kidney passes through a renal papilla at the apex into the minor
calyx
✔✔Calyx Major - ✔✔-larger funnels formed by many pyramids' minor calyces
-enlarge to form renal pelvis to narrow to become a ureter
✔✔Carbonic Anhydrase - ✔✔-involved in acid-base regulation
-an enzyme that catalyzes the reaction between water and carbon dioxide
-increases speed of reaction so equilibrium can be achieved quickly
✔✔Central Diabetes Insipidus - ✔✔-failure of ADH secretion
-pituitary tumors, head trauma, cranial surgery, or genetic abnormalities
-excess urine secretion, dilute, causes dehydration and ion imbalances
✔✔Collecting Duct - ✔✔-distal tubules empty here and from here it carries the fluid from
the cortex through the medulla and empties into a papillary duct
✔✔Conjugation - ✔✔-process where substances enter the glomerular filtrate and
reabsorbed passively--- liver cells attach other molecules to them in order to make them
more water-soluble
, ✔✔Countercurrent Mechanism - ✔✔-consists of two parallel tubes through which fluid
flows in opposite directions. Blood flows through the vasa reca without destroying the
medullary concentration gradient.
✔✔Cystitis - ✔✔-is an inflammation of the bladder, UTI (more common in women)
✔✔Diabetes Mellitus - ✔✔-inadequate secretion of insulin or diminished ability to
respond to insulin
1: diminished or absent insulin secretion
2: insulin resistance
✔✔Distal Convoluted Tubule - ✔✔-has to touch afferent arteriole
-secretion of acids and toxins happen here
-aldosterone increases Na+ reab.
- regulates the pH of urine by secreting protons and absorbing bicarbonate
✔✔Diuretics - ✔✔-increase rate of urine formation
-Alcohol: inhibits ADH secre. and thus increases amount of urine and dehydration
-Caffeine: increases glomerular filtration rate and decreases the reabsorption of NA+
✔✔Edema - ✔✔-fluid shift from the plasma to the interstitial fluid
-increased permeability of cap. walls due to inflammation, proteins diffuse into inerst.
fluid and water follows
✔✔Efferent Arteriole - ✔✔-arise from the glomerular capillaries and carry blood away
from glomeruli, gives rise to plexus of capillaries
✔✔Extracellular Fluid - ✔✔- includes all the fluid outside of the cells, one third of body's
water
✔✔Filtrate - ✔✔-the fluid that passes across the filtration membrane
✔✔Filtration - ✔✔-movement of materials across the filtration membrane into the
Bowman's Capsule to form filtrate
-movement of water and small solutes across the filt. mem. as a result of pressure
difference
✔✔Glomerular Nephritis - ✔✔-inflammation of the filtration membrane within he renal
corpuscle
-increased permeably of the filtration membrane and accumulation of numerous WBC in
the area
-proteins enters filtrate and urine, more damage= more RBC and WBC entering
✔✔Glomerulus - ✔✔-a network of capillaries
-FILTRATION
