Case 2 The most beautiful experiment in biology
vrijdag 5 september 2025 12:06
Point of interest:
- DNA replication
- Benefits in semi-constructive weight
- Weight of DNA --> effects translation
- Proving percentage of DNA
- Formation of RNA
- Function of DNA and RNA
- How easy can you change a nucleotide
- How does DNA duplicate?
Learning goals
Tuesday
- What is DNA (function & set up & drawn)
- What is RNA ( function & set up & drawn)
- How does DNA duplicate
- How can you alter parts of DNA (+methods)
- When can you change DNA
- More information about experiment (goals, results)
Friday
- Can the experiment be used to RNA as well
- Difference between DNA & RNA
- How do you go from DNA to RNA (dept)
- Process RNA translation
- How does Histone modification work?
What is DNA?
All cellular organisms contain genetic information in the form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Cellular DNA molecules are very large, and they associate with proteins to
form chromosomes. The functional unit of genetic information is the gene, defined as a length of DNA that directs the synthesis of a polypeptide.
Key features
Four bases - DNA is a polymer of nucleoside monophosphates. Its structural backbone consists of alternating
phosphate and 2-deoxyribose residues that are held together by phosphodiester bonds involving carbon-3 and
carbon-5 of the sugar.
The sequence of the four bases - A. T, G and C forms the genetic code. The specific order of these bases determines
The organism's unique traits
The blueprint of life - DNA contains the instructions for making proteins and other molecules which are essential for
An organism's development and function.
Hereditary Material - DNA is passed down from parents to their offspring, which explains why children resemble
Their parents.
Double Helix Structure - Cellular DNA is double stranded, and almost all of it presents as a double helix. This unique
Twisting shape allows for the efficient storage of genetic information and helps protect it.
Found in cells - DNA is located in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and in the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells.
DNA function
DNA functions as an information molecule, storing the genetic instructions an organism needs to develop, survive and reproduce. It carrier the code that tells cells how to
build specific proteins, which perform most of the work within the body.
Set up
DNA setup refers to the double helix structure.
Sugar-Phosphate backbone - This forms the sides of the ladder providing structural support for the DNA molecule.
Nitrogenous bases - These are the building blocks of the 'rungs' and are found in four types: adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine.
Complementary Base Pairing - Adenine always pairs with thymine (A-T), and cytosine always pairs with guanine (G-C).
Hydrogen bonds - These weak chemical bonds hold the complementary base pairs together, forming the rungs of the ladder and the overall double helix structure.
DNA can be denatured at high temperatures, that is also called melting
What is RNA?
RNA looks a lot like DNA, there are only two chemical differences between DNA and RNA. RNA contains ribose instead of 2-deoxyribose, and it contains uracil instead of
thymine. Thymine and uracil are distinguished only by a methyl group, therefore both pair with adenine.
Structure
Nucleotides - RNA is a polymer made of nucleotides, which are composed of a ribose sugar, a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogenous bases.
Single-stranded - Unlike the familiar double-helix of DNA, RNA is typically a single strand, although it can fold and form double-stranded regions.
Functions
Protein Synthesis - RNA carries genetic instructions from DNA to the ribosomes, where they are translated into proteins.
Gene regulation - Many types of RNA are involved in controlling and regulating gene expression
Catalysis - Some RNA molecules, called ribozymes, can act as enzymes to catalyze chemical reactions, an ability also seen in proteins.
Types of RNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA) - Carries instructions from DNA to the ribosomes
Transfer RNA (tRNA) - Brings specific amino acids to the ribosome to be assembled into proteins.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - A structural component of ribosomes and can also act as a ribozyme.
How does DNA duplicate?
DNA makes identical copies of itself, which are transmitted to the daughter cells during mitosis and even to the next generation trough the gametes. In this sense DNA
is the only immortal molecule in the body. The organism is best understood as an artificial environment, created by genes for the benefit of their own contained
existence.
DNA replication takes place during the S phase of the cell cycle.
Steps of DNA replication
Unwinding the helix - Enzymes like helicase break the hydrogen bonds holding two DNA strands together, causing the double helix to unwind and separate. This forms a
"Y"-shaped structure called a replication fork.
Priming - DNA polymerase needs a starting point, or 'primer' to begin synthesis. An enzyme called primase creates these short RNA primers on the separated template
strands.
Elongation by DNA polymerase - DNA polymerase then adds new nucleotides to the primer, following the base-pairing rules: A pairs
with T and G pairs with C
- Leading strand: One new strand is synthesized continuously in the 5' to 3' direction as the replication fork opens
- Lagging strand: The other strand, synthesized in fragments called Okazaki fragments, is build in the opposite direction.
Ligation - Enzymes like DNA ligase join the Okazaki fragments together into a continuous strand.
Proofreading and repair - DNA polymerase has a proofreading function to remove and replace any incorrectly incorporated bases,
Ensuring accuracy.
Key Features
vrijdag 5 september 2025 12:06
Point of interest:
- DNA replication
- Benefits in semi-constructive weight
- Weight of DNA --> effects translation
- Proving percentage of DNA
- Formation of RNA
- Function of DNA and RNA
- How easy can you change a nucleotide
- How does DNA duplicate?
Learning goals
Tuesday
- What is DNA (function & set up & drawn)
- What is RNA ( function & set up & drawn)
- How does DNA duplicate
- How can you alter parts of DNA (+methods)
- When can you change DNA
- More information about experiment (goals, results)
Friday
- Can the experiment be used to RNA as well
- Difference between DNA & RNA
- How do you go from DNA to RNA (dept)
- Process RNA translation
- How does Histone modification work?
What is DNA?
All cellular organisms contain genetic information in the form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Cellular DNA molecules are very large, and they associate with proteins to
form chromosomes. The functional unit of genetic information is the gene, defined as a length of DNA that directs the synthesis of a polypeptide.
Key features
Four bases - DNA is a polymer of nucleoside monophosphates. Its structural backbone consists of alternating
phosphate and 2-deoxyribose residues that are held together by phosphodiester bonds involving carbon-3 and
carbon-5 of the sugar.
The sequence of the four bases - A. T, G and C forms the genetic code. The specific order of these bases determines
The organism's unique traits
The blueprint of life - DNA contains the instructions for making proteins and other molecules which are essential for
An organism's development and function.
Hereditary Material - DNA is passed down from parents to their offspring, which explains why children resemble
Their parents.
Double Helix Structure - Cellular DNA is double stranded, and almost all of it presents as a double helix. This unique
Twisting shape allows for the efficient storage of genetic information and helps protect it.
Found in cells - DNA is located in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and in the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells.
DNA function
DNA functions as an information molecule, storing the genetic instructions an organism needs to develop, survive and reproduce. It carrier the code that tells cells how to
build specific proteins, which perform most of the work within the body.
Set up
DNA setup refers to the double helix structure.
Sugar-Phosphate backbone - This forms the sides of the ladder providing structural support for the DNA molecule.
Nitrogenous bases - These are the building blocks of the 'rungs' and are found in four types: adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine.
Complementary Base Pairing - Adenine always pairs with thymine (A-T), and cytosine always pairs with guanine (G-C).
Hydrogen bonds - These weak chemical bonds hold the complementary base pairs together, forming the rungs of the ladder and the overall double helix structure.
DNA can be denatured at high temperatures, that is also called melting
What is RNA?
RNA looks a lot like DNA, there are only two chemical differences between DNA and RNA. RNA contains ribose instead of 2-deoxyribose, and it contains uracil instead of
thymine. Thymine and uracil are distinguished only by a methyl group, therefore both pair with adenine.
Structure
Nucleotides - RNA is a polymer made of nucleotides, which are composed of a ribose sugar, a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogenous bases.
Single-stranded - Unlike the familiar double-helix of DNA, RNA is typically a single strand, although it can fold and form double-stranded regions.
Functions
Protein Synthesis - RNA carries genetic instructions from DNA to the ribosomes, where they are translated into proteins.
Gene regulation - Many types of RNA are involved in controlling and regulating gene expression
Catalysis - Some RNA molecules, called ribozymes, can act as enzymes to catalyze chemical reactions, an ability also seen in proteins.
Types of RNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA) - Carries instructions from DNA to the ribosomes
Transfer RNA (tRNA) - Brings specific amino acids to the ribosome to be assembled into proteins.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - A structural component of ribosomes and can also act as a ribozyme.
How does DNA duplicate?
DNA makes identical copies of itself, which are transmitted to the daughter cells during mitosis and even to the next generation trough the gametes. In this sense DNA
is the only immortal molecule in the body. The organism is best understood as an artificial environment, created by genes for the benefit of their own contained
existence.
DNA replication takes place during the S phase of the cell cycle.
Steps of DNA replication
Unwinding the helix - Enzymes like helicase break the hydrogen bonds holding two DNA strands together, causing the double helix to unwind and separate. This forms a
"Y"-shaped structure called a replication fork.
Priming - DNA polymerase needs a starting point, or 'primer' to begin synthesis. An enzyme called primase creates these short RNA primers on the separated template
strands.
Elongation by DNA polymerase - DNA polymerase then adds new nucleotides to the primer, following the base-pairing rules: A pairs
with T and G pairs with C
- Leading strand: One new strand is synthesized continuously in the 5' to 3' direction as the replication fork opens
- Lagging strand: The other strand, synthesized in fragments called Okazaki fragments, is build in the opposite direction.
Ligation - Enzymes like DNA ligase join the Okazaki fragments together into a continuous strand.
Proofreading and repair - DNA polymerase has a proofreading function to remove and replace any incorrectly incorporated bases,
Ensuring accuracy.
Key Features
