Discuss gender bias in psychology (16 marks)
AO1
Alpha bias - Refers to theories which exaggerate the differences between males and females. The result is that
theories devalue one gender in comparison to the other.
Example of alpha biassed research -
Young boys suffer from Oedipal conflict because they develop sexual desires for his mother and want to possess
her and get rid of his father. The boy has castration anxiety. The boy sets out to resolve this problem by
‘identifying’ with his father by imitating, copying and joining in masculine dad-type behaviours. The boy adopts
the male gender role and develops an ego ideal that becomes the superego. For girls, the Electra complex. The girl
desires the father, leading to ‘penis envy’ and the wish to be a boy. The girl resolves this by substituting the wish
for a penis for a baby. She blames her mother for her 'castrated state' and this creates great tension, which she
resolves by ‘identifying’ with her mother and taking on the female gender role.
Freud argued that because girls do not suffer the same oedipal conflict as boys, they do not identify with their
mothers as strongly as boys identify with their fathers, and so develop weaker superegos. Therefore femininity to
Freud is a failure of masculinity, and women are seen as inferior to and less developed than men.
AO1
Beta bias - Refers to theories which ignore or minimise sex differences. These theories often assume that the
findings from males can apply equally to females, ignoring questions about the lives of (usually) women.
Beta bias example -
Biological research into the fight-or-flight response has often been carried out with male animals. This was simply
for convenience because in female animals hormonal fluctuations of the menstrual cycle can confuse results.
It was assumed that this would not be a problem as the fight-or-flight response would be the same for both sexes.
In stress research, it was assumed that the flight or fight response was universal - until Shelly Taylor et al (2000)
challenged this. Women have higher levels of oxytocin (the love hormone) and they respond to stress by producing
more oxytocin. They found that this caused the flight or fight response to reduce and enhance a ‘tend and befriend’
response in stressful/dangerous situations.
Alpha bias and beta bias are consequences of androcentric research -
Alpha and beta bias are consequences of androcentric research, these are theories centred on, or dominated by,
males or the male viewpoint. In the past most psychologists were male, and the theories they produced tended to
represent a male view of the world. Normal behaviour is judged according to the male standard meaning female
behaviour is often judged as ‘abnormal’ or deficient.
AO3
Gender-biased research findings are often presented as fixed and enduring and might shape societal assumptions
about female or male behaviours. Macoby and Jacklin (1974) concluded that girls have better verbal ability than
boys and boys have better spatial awareness. However, Joel (2015) used brain scanning and found no such gender
differences. This suggests that we should be wary of accepting research findings as biological facts when they
may be better explained by social stereotypes.
However…
Psychologists should not avoid studying gender differences because Ingalhalikar (2014) found the stereotype that
women are better at multitasking may have a biological truth to it as their hemispheres are better connected. This
suggests that there may be some biological differences but we still need to be aware they are not exaggerated.
AO3
Sexism within the research process e.g. who carries out psychological research and samples?
In the past women were underrepresented in psychology departments. Research was more likely to be conducted
by men. For example, male psychologists may expect female participants to behave in different ways to male.
This means that the institutional structures and methods of psychology may produce findings that are gender
biased.
However…
Psychology is beginning to become a more female-dominated field with 80% of psychology undergraduates being
female.
AO3 Publishing research highlighting gender bias
Formanowisc (2018) found that research challenging gender bias is funded less often and is published by less
prestigious journals. This was true when other factors were controlled and it was compared to ethnic bias.
, This suggests that gender bias may not be taken as seriously as other forms of bias.
AO3
Researchers can use reflexivity to reduce gender bias. A way of overcoming this is to make sure researchers are
constantly reflective in their approach to research and more women psychologists today help to alleviate this issue
Therefore they can challenge negative stereotypes and discriminatory practices. By adopting a reflexive approach
modern researchers recognise the effect assumptions have on their work and embrace them as crucial aspects of
the research process. This suggests that gender bias may add an extra dimension to research if psychologists are
upfront about it in their work.
AO1
Alpha bias - Refers to theories which exaggerate the differences between males and females. The result is that
theories devalue one gender in comparison to the other.
Example of alpha biassed research -
Young boys suffer from Oedipal conflict because they develop sexual desires for his mother and want to possess
her and get rid of his father. The boy has castration anxiety. The boy sets out to resolve this problem by
‘identifying’ with his father by imitating, copying and joining in masculine dad-type behaviours. The boy adopts
the male gender role and develops an ego ideal that becomes the superego. For girls, the Electra complex. The girl
desires the father, leading to ‘penis envy’ and the wish to be a boy. The girl resolves this by substituting the wish
for a penis for a baby. She blames her mother for her 'castrated state' and this creates great tension, which she
resolves by ‘identifying’ with her mother and taking on the female gender role.
Freud argued that because girls do not suffer the same oedipal conflict as boys, they do not identify with their
mothers as strongly as boys identify with their fathers, and so develop weaker superegos. Therefore femininity to
Freud is a failure of masculinity, and women are seen as inferior to and less developed than men.
AO1
Beta bias - Refers to theories which ignore or minimise sex differences. These theories often assume that the
findings from males can apply equally to females, ignoring questions about the lives of (usually) women.
Beta bias example -
Biological research into the fight-or-flight response has often been carried out with male animals. This was simply
for convenience because in female animals hormonal fluctuations of the menstrual cycle can confuse results.
It was assumed that this would not be a problem as the fight-or-flight response would be the same for both sexes.
In stress research, it was assumed that the flight or fight response was universal - until Shelly Taylor et al (2000)
challenged this. Women have higher levels of oxytocin (the love hormone) and they respond to stress by producing
more oxytocin. They found that this caused the flight or fight response to reduce and enhance a ‘tend and befriend’
response in stressful/dangerous situations.
Alpha bias and beta bias are consequences of androcentric research -
Alpha and beta bias are consequences of androcentric research, these are theories centred on, or dominated by,
males or the male viewpoint. In the past most psychologists were male, and the theories they produced tended to
represent a male view of the world. Normal behaviour is judged according to the male standard meaning female
behaviour is often judged as ‘abnormal’ or deficient.
AO3
Gender-biased research findings are often presented as fixed and enduring and might shape societal assumptions
about female or male behaviours. Macoby and Jacklin (1974) concluded that girls have better verbal ability than
boys and boys have better spatial awareness. However, Joel (2015) used brain scanning and found no such gender
differences. This suggests that we should be wary of accepting research findings as biological facts when they
may be better explained by social stereotypes.
However…
Psychologists should not avoid studying gender differences because Ingalhalikar (2014) found the stereotype that
women are better at multitasking may have a biological truth to it as their hemispheres are better connected. This
suggests that there may be some biological differences but we still need to be aware they are not exaggerated.
AO3
Sexism within the research process e.g. who carries out psychological research and samples?
In the past women were underrepresented in psychology departments. Research was more likely to be conducted
by men. For example, male psychologists may expect female participants to behave in different ways to male.
This means that the institutional structures and methods of psychology may produce findings that are gender
biased.
However…
Psychology is beginning to become a more female-dominated field with 80% of psychology undergraduates being
female.
AO3 Publishing research highlighting gender bias
Formanowisc (2018) found that research challenging gender bias is funded less often and is published by less
prestigious journals. This was true when other factors were controlled and it was compared to ethnic bias.
, This suggests that gender bias may not be taken as seriously as other forms of bias.
AO3
Researchers can use reflexivity to reduce gender bias. A way of overcoming this is to make sure researchers are
constantly reflective in their approach to research and more women psychologists today help to alleviate this issue
Therefore they can challenge negative stereotypes and discriminatory practices. By adopting a reflexive approach
modern researchers recognise the effect assumptions have on their work and embrace them as crucial aspects of
the research process. This suggests that gender bias may add an extra dimension to research if psychologists are
upfront about it in their work.
