SCI 220
Human Anatomy
Final Exam Review
(With Solutions)
2025
TISSUES:
Group of CELLS.
Muscle, Nerve, Epithelial, Connective.
1. Epithelial: (joined together tightly) Example. Skin
2. Connective: (dense, loose, or fatty) Example. Tissue, Cartilage, Tendons, Ligaments, Fat,
Blood, Lymph.
It protects and binds body parts.
a. Cartilage: cushions and provides structural support
Fibrous
b. Blood: transport oxygen to cells and removes waste. Also carries hormones and
defends against disease.
c. Bone: (hard) produces red blood cells
3. Muscle: supports and move body
Smooth Cardiac
Skeletal
4. Nervous: Example. Brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
Neurons: control responses to changes in environment.
Mitosis - it has 4 phases. Pink MAT / Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase Interphase
- Cell prepares for division by replicating genetic/cytoplasmic material.
Prophase - Chromatin thickens into chromosomes and the nuclear membrane begins to
disintegrate. Pairs of centrioles move to opposite sides of cell and spindle fibers form.
Metaphase - Spindle moves to center of cell and chromosome pairs align along center of spindle
structure.
Anaphase - Chromosome pairs pull apart into daughter chromosomes.
Telophase - Spindle disintegrates, nuclear membrane reforms or is pinched.
,Cytokinesis - Physical splitting of cell.
Meiosis- same as mitosis except happens twice, results in four daughter cells instead of two.
Mature haploid male and female germ cell uniting in sexual reproduction.
Gametes in female = Egg
Gametes in Male = Sperm
Meiosis is when gametes produce a zygote.
Zygote: controls cell differentiation. It forms during fertilization. The cells from each parent that
combine to form a zygote are called gametes. Zygote is the first stage of reproduction.
1. Respiratory System
main functions are the critical tasks of transporting oxygen from the atmosphere into the
body’s cell and moving carbon dioxide in the other direction.
Nasal Cavity - air passage that warms, moistens, and filters air, and also contains olfactory
receptors. Medially divided by the nasal septum External Nares - the visible ‘nostrils’ that are the
entrances into the nasal cavity
The Larynx - air passage that connects the pharynx to the trachea, composed of individual
cartilages, mostly hyaline. Commonly called the voice box for its additional function of voice
production.
Epiglottis - the only elastic cartilage, blocks entrance to the larynx during swallowing, ensuring
food only enters the esophagus.
Lungs - Paired organs that are highly compartmentalized into small air sacs called alveoli. Also
contain elastic tissue to facilitate ventilation.
Alveoli – the individual lung compartments where gas exchange with blood occurs.
Type 2 cells - cuboidal cells that secrete surfactant, which reduces the surface tension
of water to prevent alveolar collapse.
Bronchi – the main passageways directly attached to the lungs.
Bronchioles- small passages in the lungs that connect bronchi to alveoli
Right Lung - divided into upper, middle, and lower lobes by the horizontal fissure and oblique
fissure respectively.
,Left Lung - divided into upper and lower lobes by the oblique fissure, also has the cardiac notch
– an indentation for the heart’s apex.
The Pleurae - a double layer of serous membrane producing serous fluid to reduce friction
during lung ventilation/movement.
• Visceral pleura - the serous membrane layer that clings to the lung surface.
• Parietal pleura - the serous membrane that is separated from the lungs, clings to the
internal surface of the thoracic body wall.
• Pleural cavity - the space between the parietal and visceral layers filled with serous
fluid, which reduces friction and causes pleural membranes to stick together.
Perfusion- The passage of fluid to an organ or a tissue.
, Pulmonary Ventilation - the movement of air into and out of the lungs based on the interactions
of pressures in and around the body.
• Inspiration - the movement of air into the lungs.
• Expiration - the movement of air out of the lungs.
Tidal volume - The volume of air ventilated during resting breathing.
Inspiratory reserve volume - additional air that can be forcefully inhaled beyond tidal.
Expiratory reserve volume - additional air that can be forcefully exhaled beyond tidal.
Residual volume - volume of air always in lungs, prevents lung collapse.
Medulla Oblongata- the breathing control centers of the medulla oblongata of the brainstem
control respiration through monitoring carbon dioxide levels of blood pH.
Asthma- A lung disease characterized by inflamed narrowed airways and difficulty breathing.
Cystic Fibrosis – A genetic disorder affects the lungs and other organs characterized by
difficulty breathing coughing up sputum and lung infections.
2. Cardiovascular System
Heart
• Location- in the mediastinum of thoracic cavity.
• Function- generates pressure to pump blood through circulatory system
• Orientation- flat base is directed toward higher right shoulder, and pointed apex
points to left hip.
Heart Coverings
• Pericardium- the two-layered membranous sac in which the heart sits.
Heart Layers
• Epicardium- the epithelium clinging to the outer heart wall (is visceral pericardium.
• Myocardium- the middle layer composed of cardiac muscles tissue and connective
tissue forming the fibrous skeleton.
• Endocardium- the epithelium clinging to the inner surfaces of the heart chambers.
Human Anatomy
Final Exam Review
(With Solutions)
2025
TISSUES:
Group of CELLS.
Muscle, Nerve, Epithelial, Connective.
1. Epithelial: (joined together tightly) Example. Skin
2. Connective: (dense, loose, or fatty) Example. Tissue, Cartilage, Tendons, Ligaments, Fat,
Blood, Lymph.
It protects and binds body parts.
a. Cartilage: cushions and provides structural support
Fibrous
b. Blood: transport oxygen to cells and removes waste. Also carries hormones and
defends against disease.
c. Bone: (hard) produces red blood cells
3. Muscle: supports and move body
Smooth Cardiac
Skeletal
4. Nervous: Example. Brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
Neurons: control responses to changes in environment.
Mitosis - it has 4 phases. Pink MAT / Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase Interphase
- Cell prepares for division by replicating genetic/cytoplasmic material.
Prophase - Chromatin thickens into chromosomes and the nuclear membrane begins to
disintegrate. Pairs of centrioles move to opposite sides of cell and spindle fibers form.
Metaphase - Spindle moves to center of cell and chromosome pairs align along center of spindle
structure.
Anaphase - Chromosome pairs pull apart into daughter chromosomes.
Telophase - Spindle disintegrates, nuclear membrane reforms or is pinched.
,Cytokinesis - Physical splitting of cell.
Meiosis- same as mitosis except happens twice, results in four daughter cells instead of two.
Mature haploid male and female germ cell uniting in sexual reproduction.
Gametes in female = Egg
Gametes in Male = Sperm
Meiosis is when gametes produce a zygote.
Zygote: controls cell differentiation. It forms during fertilization. The cells from each parent that
combine to form a zygote are called gametes. Zygote is the first stage of reproduction.
1. Respiratory System
main functions are the critical tasks of transporting oxygen from the atmosphere into the
body’s cell and moving carbon dioxide in the other direction.
Nasal Cavity - air passage that warms, moistens, and filters air, and also contains olfactory
receptors. Medially divided by the nasal septum External Nares - the visible ‘nostrils’ that are the
entrances into the nasal cavity
The Larynx - air passage that connects the pharynx to the trachea, composed of individual
cartilages, mostly hyaline. Commonly called the voice box for its additional function of voice
production.
Epiglottis - the only elastic cartilage, blocks entrance to the larynx during swallowing, ensuring
food only enters the esophagus.
Lungs - Paired organs that are highly compartmentalized into small air sacs called alveoli. Also
contain elastic tissue to facilitate ventilation.
Alveoli – the individual lung compartments where gas exchange with blood occurs.
Type 2 cells - cuboidal cells that secrete surfactant, which reduces the surface tension
of water to prevent alveolar collapse.
Bronchi – the main passageways directly attached to the lungs.
Bronchioles- small passages in the lungs that connect bronchi to alveoli
Right Lung - divided into upper, middle, and lower lobes by the horizontal fissure and oblique
fissure respectively.
,Left Lung - divided into upper and lower lobes by the oblique fissure, also has the cardiac notch
– an indentation for the heart’s apex.
The Pleurae - a double layer of serous membrane producing serous fluid to reduce friction
during lung ventilation/movement.
• Visceral pleura - the serous membrane layer that clings to the lung surface.
• Parietal pleura - the serous membrane that is separated from the lungs, clings to the
internal surface of the thoracic body wall.
• Pleural cavity - the space between the parietal and visceral layers filled with serous
fluid, which reduces friction and causes pleural membranes to stick together.
Perfusion- The passage of fluid to an organ or a tissue.
, Pulmonary Ventilation - the movement of air into and out of the lungs based on the interactions
of pressures in and around the body.
• Inspiration - the movement of air into the lungs.
• Expiration - the movement of air out of the lungs.
Tidal volume - The volume of air ventilated during resting breathing.
Inspiratory reserve volume - additional air that can be forcefully inhaled beyond tidal.
Expiratory reserve volume - additional air that can be forcefully exhaled beyond tidal.
Residual volume - volume of air always in lungs, prevents lung collapse.
Medulla Oblongata- the breathing control centers of the medulla oblongata of the brainstem
control respiration through monitoring carbon dioxide levels of blood pH.
Asthma- A lung disease characterized by inflamed narrowed airways and difficulty breathing.
Cystic Fibrosis – A genetic disorder affects the lungs and other organs characterized by
difficulty breathing coughing up sputum and lung infections.
2. Cardiovascular System
Heart
• Location- in the mediastinum of thoracic cavity.
• Function- generates pressure to pump blood through circulatory system
• Orientation- flat base is directed toward higher right shoulder, and pointed apex
points to left hip.
Heart Coverings
• Pericardium- the two-layered membranous sac in which the heart sits.
Heart Layers
• Epicardium- the epithelium clinging to the outer heart wall (is visceral pericardium.
• Myocardium- the middle layer composed of cardiac muscles tissue and connective
tissue forming the fibrous skeleton.
• Endocardium- the epithelium clinging to the inner surfaces of the heart chambers.
