C949v4 Data Structures and Algorithms Study Guide:
Exploring Algorithms and Data Structures 2025 Western
Governors University
This content comprehensively explores fundamental data structures and
algorithms, providing in-depth explanations and comparisons of various
types such as arrays, linked lists, trees, stacks, queues, and hash tables
C949v4 Study Guide
Competencies and Topics
Explains Algorithms - 29% of assessment
Characteristics of Algorithms
Finiteness
An algorithm must always have a finite number of steps before it ends. When the operation
is finished, it must have a defined endpoint or output and not enter an endless loop.
Definiteness
An algorithm needs to have exact definitions for each step. Clear and straightforward
directions ensure that every step is understood and can be taken easily.
Input
An algorithm requires one or more inputs. The values that are first supplied to the
,algorithm before its processing are known as inputs. These inputs come from a
predetermined range of acceptable values.
Output
One or more outputs must be produced by an algorithm. The output is the outcome of the
algorithm after every step has been completed. The relationship between the input and the
result should be clear.
Effectiveness
An algorithm's stages must be sufficiently straightforward to be carried out in a finite time
utilizing fundamental operations. With the resources at hand, every operation in the
algorithm should be doable and practicable.
Generality
Rather than being limited to a single particular case, an algorithm should be able to solve a
group of issues. It should offer a generic fix that manages a variety of inputs inside a
predetermined range or domain.
,Factors of an Algorithm
● Modularity: This feature was perfectly designed for the algorithm if you are given a
problem and break it down into small-small modules or small-small steps, which is a
basic definition of an algorithm.
● Correctness: An algorithm's correctness is defined as when the given inputs
produce the desired output, indicating that the algorithm was designed correctly. An
algorithm's analysis has been completed correctly.
● Maintainability: It means that the algorithm should be designed in a
straightforward, structured way so that when you redefine the algorithm, no
significant changes are made to the algorithm.
● Functionality: It takes into account various logical steps to solve a real-world
problem.
● Robustness: Robustness refers to an algorithm's ability to define your problem
clearly.
● User-friendly: If the algorithm is difficult to understand, the designer will not
explain it to the programmer.
● Simplicity: If an algorithm is simple, it is simple to understand.
● Extensibility: Your algorithm should be extensible if another algorithm designer or
programmer wants to use it.
Types of Algorithms
● Brute Force Algorithm: A straightforward approach that exhaustively tries all
possible solutions, suitable for small problem instances but may become impractical
for larger ones due to its high time complexity.
● Recursive Algorithm: A method that breaks a problem into smaller, similar
subproblems and repeatedly applies itself to solve them until reaching a base case,
making it effective for tasks with recursive structures.
● Encryption Algorithm: Utilized to transform data into a secure, unreadable form
using cryptographic techniques, ensuring confidentiality and privacy in digital
communications and transactions.
● Backtracking Algorithm: A trial-and-error technique used to explore potential
solutions by undoing choices when they lead to an incorrect outcome, commonly
employed in puzzles and optimization problems.
● Searching Algorithm: Designed to find a specific target within a dataset, enabling
efficient retrieval of information from sorted or unsorted collections.
, ● Sorting Algorithm: Aimed at arranging elements in a specific order, like numerical
or alphabetical, to enhance data organization and retrieval.
● Hashing Algorithm: Converts data into a fixed-size hash value, enabling rapid data
access and retrieval in hash tables, commonly used in databases and password
storage.
● Divide and Conquer Algorithm: Breaks a complex problem into smaller
subproblems, solves them independently, and then combines their solutions to
address the original problem effectively.
● Greedy Algorithm: Makes locally optimal choices at each step in the hope of finding
a global optimum, useful for optimization problems but may not always lead to the
best solution.
● Dynamic Programming Algorithm: Stores and reuses intermediate results to avoid
redundant computations, enhancing the efficiency of solving complex problems.
● Randomized Algorithm: Utilizes randomness in its steps to achieve a solution,
often used in situations where an approximate or probabilistic answer suffices.
Recursive algorithms
Recursive algorithms are a fundamental concept in computer science, particularly in the
study of data structures and algorithms. A recursive algorithm is one that solves a problem
by breaking it down into smaller instances of the same problem, which it then solves in the
same way. This process continues until the problem is reduced to a base case, which is
solved directly without further recursion.
Key Concepts of Recursive Algorithms
1. Base Case: This is the condition under which the recursion stops. It represents the
simplest instance of the problem, which can be solved directly without further
recursion.
2. Recursive Case: This is the part of the algorithm that breaks the problem down into
smaller instances of the same problem and then calls the algorithm recursively on
these smaller instances.
3. Stack: Each recursive call is placed on the system call stack. When the base case is
reached, the stack begins to unwind as each instance of the function returns its
result.
Example: Factorial Calculation
Exploring Algorithms and Data Structures 2025 Western
Governors University
This content comprehensively explores fundamental data structures and
algorithms, providing in-depth explanations and comparisons of various
types such as arrays, linked lists, trees, stacks, queues, and hash tables
C949v4 Study Guide
Competencies and Topics
Explains Algorithms - 29% of assessment
Characteristics of Algorithms
Finiteness
An algorithm must always have a finite number of steps before it ends. When the operation
is finished, it must have a defined endpoint or output and not enter an endless loop.
Definiteness
An algorithm needs to have exact definitions for each step. Clear and straightforward
directions ensure that every step is understood and can be taken easily.
Input
An algorithm requires one or more inputs. The values that are first supplied to the
,algorithm before its processing are known as inputs. These inputs come from a
predetermined range of acceptable values.
Output
One or more outputs must be produced by an algorithm. The output is the outcome of the
algorithm after every step has been completed. The relationship between the input and the
result should be clear.
Effectiveness
An algorithm's stages must be sufficiently straightforward to be carried out in a finite time
utilizing fundamental operations. With the resources at hand, every operation in the
algorithm should be doable and practicable.
Generality
Rather than being limited to a single particular case, an algorithm should be able to solve a
group of issues. It should offer a generic fix that manages a variety of inputs inside a
predetermined range or domain.
,Factors of an Algorithm
● Modularity: This feature was perfectly designed for the algorithm if you are given a
problem and break it down into small-small modules or small-small steps, which is a
basic definition of an algorithm.
● Correctness: An algorithm's correctness is defined as when the given inputs
produce the desired output, indicating that the algorithm was designed correctly. An
algorithm's analysis has been completed correctly.
● Maintainability: It means that the algorithm should be designed in a
straightforward, structured way so that when you redefine the algorithm, no
significant changes are made to the algorithm.
● Functionality: It takes into account various logical steps to solve a real-world
problem.
● Robustness: Robustness refers to an algorithm's ability to define your problem
clearly.
● User-friendly: If the algorithm is difficult to understand, the designer will not
explain it to the programmer.
● Simplicity: If an algorithm is simple, it is simple to understand.
● Extensibility: Your algorithm should be extensible if another algorithm designer or
programmer wants to use it.
Types of Algorithms
● Brute Force Algorithm: A straightforward approach that exhaustively tries all
possible solutions, suitable for small problem instances but may become impractical
for larger ones due to its high time complexity.
● Recursive Algorithm: A method that breaks a problem into smaller, similar
subproblems and repeatedly applies itself to solve them until reaching a base case,
making it effective for tasks with recursive structures.
● Encryption Algorithm: Utilized to transform data into a secure, unreadable form
using cryptographic techniques, ensuring confidentiality and privacy in digital
communications and transactions.
● Backtracking Algorithm: A trial-and-error technique used to explore potential
solutions by undoing choices when they lead to an incorrect outcome, commonly
employed in puzzles and optimization problems.
● Searching Algorithm: Designed to find a specific target within a dataset, enabling
efficient retrieval of information from sorted or unsorted collections.
, ● Sorting Algorithm: Aimed at arranging elements in a specific order, like numerical
or alphabetical, to enhance data organization and retrieval.
● Hashing Algorithm: Converts data into a fixed-size hash value, enabling rapid data
access and retrieval in hash tables, commonly used in databases and password
storage.
● Divide and Conquer Algorithm: Breaks a complex problem into smaller
subproblems, solves them independently, and then combines their solutions to
address the original problem effectively.
● Greedy Algorithm: Makes locally optimal choices at each step in the hope of finding
a global optimum, useful for optimization problems but may not always lead to the
best solution.
● Dynamic Programming Algorithm: Stores and reuses intermediate results to avoid
redundant computations, enhancing the efficiency of solving complex problems.
● Randomized Algorithm: Utilizes randomness in its steps to achieve a solution,
often used in situations where an approximate or probabilistic answer suffices.
Recursive algorithms
Recursive algorithms are a fundamental concept in computer science, particularly in the
study of data structures and algorithms. A recursive algorithm is one that solves a problem
by breaking it down into smaller instances of the same problem, which it then solves in the
same way. This process continues until the problem is reduced to a base case, which is
solved directly without further recursion.
Key Concepts of Recursive Algorithms
1. Base Case: This is the condition under which the recursion stops. It represents the
simplest instance of the problem, which can be solved directly without further
recursion.
2. Recursive Case: This is the part of the algorithm that breaks the problem down into
smaller instances of the same problem and then calls the algorithm recursively on
these smaller instances.
3. Stack: Each recursive call is placed on the system call stack. When the base case is
reached, the stack begins to unwind as each instance of the function returns its
result.
Example: Factorial Calculation
