Approaches
Including:
1.Behaviourist approach
2.Social learning approach
3.Biological approach
4.Cognitive approach
5.Psychodynamic approach
6.Humanistic approach
7.Origins of psychology
,Behaviourist approach
Assumptions
- All behaviour is learned from experience through either classical or
operant conditioning.
- We are born a ‘blank slate’, so there is no genetic influence on behaviour
(with the exception of reflexes).
- The same principles of learning apply to both human and non-human
animals.
- Only observable behaviour should be studied as this is scientifically
measurable.
Classical conditioning
- Proposed by Pavlov as the main cause of behaviour, classical conditioning
refers to learning by the association between a stimulus and a response.
- It is sometimes referred to as stimulus-response learning:
o An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) causes an unconditioned response
(UCR).
o There is a neutral stimulus (NS) that does not cause the same
response.
o The neutral stimulus (NS) is then paired with the unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) causing an unconditioned response (UCR).
o The neutral stimulus (NS) then becomes the conditioned stimulus
that causes the conditioned response (CR).
- Pavlov demonstrated classical conditioning using dogs:
o Food (UCS) caused salivation (UCR).
o Bell (NS) has no response.
o Bell (NS) is combined with food (UCS) to cause salivation (UCR).
o Bell (CS) now causes salivation (CR).
Operant conditioning
- This is the learning from the consequences of our actions.
- Skinner argued that learning is an active process.
- When humans and animals act on and in their environment consequences
follow these behaviours.
- If consequences are pleasant they repeat the behaviour but if the
consequences are unpleasant they do not repeat the behaviour.
- Skinner designed a box in which an animal’s behaviour (such as pulling a
lever or pressing a button) could be rewarded with food pellets or with the
removal of discomfort, or could be punished through causing discomfort.
- From this research Skinner discovered three types of consequences that
influenced learning:
o Positive reinforcement – the consequence is a reward. For example,
the rat was positively reinforced for pressing the button by
receiving a food pellet.
o Negative reinforcement – the removal of something unpleasant. For
example, the rat had to press a lever to stop receiving electric
shocks.
o Punishment – an unpleasant consequence. For example, the rat
received an electric shock when it pulled a lever.
- Both types of reinforcement strengthen/increases the likelihood of the
behaviour being repeated.
- Punishments weaken/decrease the behaviour.
, Evaluation of the behaviourist approach
{the approach is supported by research}
- All the studies were lab experiments and so were very well controlled.
- This means they can be replicated and checked for reliability.
{the approach has many real-life applications}
- It explains many phobias well and has given rise to many treatments that
have been found to be effective.
- For example, systemic desensitisation (based on classical conditioning) is
effective in the treatment of phobias.
- Likewise, token economy (based on operant conditioning) has been very
effective for behaviour modification in prisons and institutions.
{the approach can be described as reductionist}
- It reduces/simplifies behaviour to its most basic observable components.
- In doing so, it fails to take into account factors which many psychologists
would view as important:
o It does not take into account the influence of biological factors such
as the level of neurotransmitters or genetic inheritance.
o It sees people as passive in their learning with little conscious
thoughts influencing their behaviour. Other approaches recognise
the importance of mental events in the learning process.
{environmental determinism}
- It sees all behaviours determined by conditioning and does not recognise
free will.
- For example, we could argue that we choose not to behave in certain ways
because of moral or religious values. However, the behaviourist approach
argues that free will is an illusion.
Social learning approach
Assumptions
- Behaviour is learned from our environment, so genetics is not an influence
on behaviour.
- Behaviour is learned from observing others and the reinforcement or
punishment they receive.
- Imitation is more likely to occur if we identify with the model.
- There are cognitive factors (mental processes) involved in this form of
learning, which separates it from the behaviourist approach.
Key concepts in social learning theory
- Social learning is also referred to as modelling.
- Individuals that are observed are called models.
- We observe and pay attention to these models and code their behaviour in
memory. At a later time we may imitate the behaviour we have observed.
Factors that increase the likelihood of the observer
imitating the modelled behaviour
- Vicarious reinforcement: the observer will take account of what the
consequences of the behaviour were for the model when deciding whether
or not to imitate their actions. If the model’s behaviour is reinforced then
the observer is more likely to imitate it.
- The observer is more likely to attend to and imitate those people he or she
perceives as similar to him or himself.
Including:
1.Behaviourist approach
2.Social learning approach
3.Biological approach
4.Cognitive approach
5.Psychodynamic approach
6.Humanistic approach
7.Origins of psychology
,Behaviourist approach
Assumptions
- All behaviour is learned from experience through either classical or
operant conditioning.
- We are born a ‘blank slate’, so there is no genetic influence on behaviour
(with the exception of reflexes).
- The same principles of learning apply to both human and non-human
animals.
- Only observable behaviour should be studied as this is scientifically
measurable.
Classical conditioning
- Proposed by Pavlov as the main cause of behaviour, classical conditioning
refers to learning by the association between a stimulus and a response.
- It is sometimes referred to as stimulus-response learning:
o An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) causes an unconditioned response
(UCR).
o There is a neutral stimulus (NS) that does not cause the same
response.
o The neutral stimulus (NS) is then paired with the unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) causing an unconditioned response (UCR).
o The neutral stimulus (NS) then becomes the conditioned stimulus
that causes the conditioned response (CR).
- Pavlov demonstrated classical conditioning using dogs:
o Food (UCS) caused salivation (UCR).
o Bell (NS) has no response.
o Bell (NS) is combined with food (UCS) to cause salivation (UCR).
o Bell (CS) now causes salivation (CR).
Operant conditioning
- This is the learning from the consequences of our actions.
- Skinner argued that learning is an active process.
- When humans and animals act on and in their environment consequences
follow these behaviours.
- If consequences are pleasant they repeat the behaviour but if the
consequences are unpleasant they do not repeat the behaviour.
- Skinner designed a box in which an animal’s behaviour (such as pulling a
lever or pressing a button) could be rewarded with food pellets or with the
removal of discomfort, or could be punished through causing discomfort.
- From this research Skinner discovered three types of consequences that
influenced learning:
o Positive reinforcement – the consequence is a reward. For example,
the rat was positively reinforced for pressing the button by
receiving a food pellet.
o Negative reinforcement – the removal of something unpleasant. For
example, the rat had to press a lever to stop receiving electric
shocks.
o Punishment – an unpleasant consequence. For example, the rat
received an electric shock when it pulled a lever.
- Both types of reinforcement strengthen/increases the likelihood of the
behaviour being repeated.
- Punishments weaken/decrease the behaviour.
, Evaluation of the behaviourist approach
{the approach is supported by research}
- All the studies were lab experiments and so were very well controlled.
- This means they can be replicated and checked for reliability.
{the approach has many real-life applications}
- It explains many phobias well and has given rise to many treatments that
have been found to be effective.
- For example, systemic desensitisation (based on classical conditioning) is
effective in the treatment of phobias.
- Likewise, token economy (based on operant conditioning) has been very
effective for behaviour modification in prisons and institutions.
{the approach can be described as reductionist}
- It reduces/simplifies behaviour to its most basic observable components.
- In doing so, it fails to take into account factors which many psychologists
would view as important:
o It does not take into account the influence of biological factors such
as the level of neurotransmitters or genetic inheritance.
o It sees people as passive in their learning with little conscious
thoughts influencing their behaviour. Other approaches recognise
the importance of mental events in the learning process.
{environmental determinism}
- It sees all behaviours determined by conditioning and does not recognise
free will.
- For example, we could argue that we choose not to behave in certain ways
because of moral or religious values. However, the behaviourist approach
argues that free will is an illusion.
Social learning approach
Assumptions
- Behaviour is learned from our environment, so genetics is not an influence
on behaviour.
- Behaviour is learned from observing others and the reinforcement or
punishment they receive.
- Imitation is more likely to occur if we identify with the model.
- There are cognitive factors (mental processes) involved in this form of
learning, which separates it from the behaviourist approach.
Key concepts in social learning theory
- Social learning is also referred to as modelling.
- Individuals that are observed are called models.
- We observe and pay attention to these models and code their behaviour in
memory. At a later time we may imitate the behaviour we have observed.
Factors that increase the likelihood of the observer
imitating the modelled behaviour
- Vicarious reinforcement: the observer will take account of what the
consequences of the behaviour were for the model when deciding whether
or not to imitate their actions. If the model’s behaviour is reinforced then
the observer is more likely to imitate it.
- The observer is more likely to attend to and imitate those people he or she
perceives as similar to him or himself.
