Topic 12: The Cold Wary:
Superpower Tensions and Rivalries
(20th Century)
1)Rivalry, Mistrust and Accord:
The breakdown of the grand alliance and the emergence of
superpower rivalry in Europe and Asia (1943–1949): role of
ideology; fear and aggression; economic interests; a comparison of
the roles of the US and the USSR
US Ideology → Capitalist; free market; Economic independence
USSR’s Ideology → Communist; state-controlled; Economic dependence from Moscow in
all Eastern European countries
- From US Perspective From USSR Perspective
Ideology → ‘Salami tactics’ after 1945 appeared to be → The Marshall Plan was seen as an
motivated by a desire to spread communism in ideological move - an example of dollar
Eastern Europe; imperialism and an attempt to win over
- Soviet supervision of organisation of Eastern satellite states
John Lewis governments in Eastern European states - Stalin was angry because the US was
Gaddis claims - Led to each of the parties being ‘sliced off’ imposing Capitalist ideologies in the
that the Cold - The communist ‘core’ was left, and were satellite states and in the Soviet
War arose eventually replaced with Moscow-trained ‘sphere of influence’
because of people - This went against the agreements at
incompatible Yalta and Potsdam
ideologies. → Set up of the Communist Information Bureau in
September 1947; (Cominform) → The United States’ economic power and its
- Instrument to increase Stalin’s control over attempt to establish world markets on
Geoffrey the Communist parties of other countries capitalist terms, looked like a quest for global
Roberts agrees - US was concerned that this organisation domination
that COMECON would actively spread communism (and - Soviet plan and ideology of world-wide
was created destabilise the democratic governments) revolution was at danger because of
primarily to this quest for global market domination
counter the → The establishment of Cominform indicated the - Czechoslovakia (1948) → Stalin
Marshall Plan, intention to spread world-wide revolution ensured no Western influence would
emphasising - The US was concerned their influence enter in his satellite state
that Stalin saw (capitalism) would be diminished
the Marshall - This reaction was further provoked by the → Tension generated by changes between
Plan as a rise of communist parties in Italy and France Yalta and Potsdam:
strategy to and the civil war in Greece, which were all - Roosevelt died and Truman replaced
spread seen as being funded by the Soviets him → Truman was a much more
capitalism. hardline president with strong
→ Soviet influence in Iran seemed to indicate a anti-communist views - Stalin had
, Soviet desire to get more influence in this area good relations with Roosevelt.
(Asia) Tensions created by ideological
- 30,000 Soviet troops in the north of Iran divergences
(who stayed there claiming they they were - At Yalta, soviet ‘sphere of influence’
needed to help put down internal rebellion), agreed, Poland and Germany as well.
encouraged a communist uprising However, at Potsdam, Truman went
- Stalin refused to take out his men after back on these agreed terms. Stalin
British and American demands was furious and tensions escalated
→ COMECON (1949) was an attempt to spread → US actions in Germany, especially the
communism. Helped to reinforce communist setting up of the new currency in Western
ideology in Eastern Europe zones, seemed to be an attempt to spread
- The trade agreements maintained Soviet western influence
domination and reinforced the isolation of
each state. Economic dependency meant
that Eastern European countries would be
less tempted to shift towards the West
Economic → The US wanted to establish open markets; it set → To the USSR, the USA’s pursuit of the
Interests up the Bretton Woods system which emphasised world’s markets looked like a quest for global
free market capitalism economic domination under its own capitalist
terms - it withdrew from the Bretton Woods
Revisionist → The US set up the Marshall Plan (1948); this was system in 1946
historian William an economic plan to rebuild Europe but had a - The Berlin Blockade (1948) is a clear
Appleman strong ideological motive - to prevent Europe’s example of the USSR’s attempt to
Williams poverty leading to communism combat capitalist economic
suggests that - Economic extension of the Truman Doctrine development in Germany. Western
the ‘open door’ (1947) products were not allowed to enter
free trade - Other goals included: East Berlin
system → Revive European economies so that - Berlin Airlift, as a response, was a
conducted by political and social stability could ensue clear success
the USA → Safeguard the future of the US economy;
supported the example is Czechoslovakia as investment → The USSR set up its own economic
economic and loans of US dollars would increase. system: COMECON to provide aid to the
expansion of a Eastern satellite states; This was also a way
nation that had → The differing economic aims in Germany helped of securing more control over these states and
mostly been to increase tension and accelerate the move rebuilding industry (60% destroyed in WW2)
anti-imperialist. towards two states. The West introduced a new - Molotov Plan in 1947 offered Russian
currency in 1948 aid to the Eastern European
- The US wanted a capitalist, free market economies
- The USSR wanted a centralised economy
with collectivisation and industrialisation → USSR felt threatened by the establishment
of the International Monetary Fund and the
→ Berlin Airlift was a clear success and showed the World Bank, which were 2 tools used to
US was not reluctant to impose and protect achieve the US’s goals of spreading capitalist
capitalism economic interests
, Fear and → The US was afraid of the spread of communism → The USSR saw the US’s actions, including
Aggression (as indicated by the Red Scare) the Marshall Plan, pursuit of open trade
- It thus was very suspicious of Stalin’s policies, introduction of the new currency in
actions and tended to see the USSR’s Germany, as aggressive;
leaders moves as a bid to spread
communism first in Europe and then the → The USSR was afraid that the USA would
Orthodox/traditio world use its economic and military might to encircle
nalist historians - Kennan’s Long Telegram: fear of the the USSR with hostile alliances;
view the USSR USSR’s expansion; he emphasised the - Formation of NATO - Military Alliance
was responsible following points: → Membership in NATO came with the
for the Cold War. → There could be no peaceful coexistence agreement that an attack on any one
Soviets were → The Soviet Union was determined to of the member nations was an attack
inevitably destroy democracy on them all and would place their
expansionist → Communism only became popular when defence forces under a joint NATO
due to their people were poor and ignorant command organisation that would
suspicion of the → The US should give economic aid to poor coordinate the defence of the West
West. The USA countries to keep them safe → Stalin was much more fearful of
had to act - Fulton Speech by Churchill: ‘Iron Curtain’ directly attacking the US or other
defensively, from showed the fear and division between East European countries because of the
the Truman and West. Called for Western alliance that force exhibited by all militaries
Doctrine and would stand firm against the communist combined
Marshall Plan to threat
the → Stalin was naturally suspicious, and so was
establishment of → Such fears were reinforced by the: likely to interpret all Western actions as
NATO. - Establishment of the Comintern attempts to weaken the USSR
- Czech coup - ‘salami tactics’ led to the - For instance, Truman committed the
downfall of democratically elected USA to global policy and moved it
Arthur government in Czechoslovakia. Eventually, away from isolationism. Stalin viewed
Schlesinger an armed coup in 1948 forced all this as a direct threat to the USSR’s
argued that the non-communist members of the government objectives because of the immense
foundations of to resign; The communists won the election. influence of the United States in
the USSR’s Truman believed that his policy of “Dollar Europe and the rest of the world.
ideology, mainly Imperialism” was at risk - Global policy became known as the
Leninism and - Success of the CCP in China - In October ‘Truman Doctrine’; foundation of US
Totalitarianism, 1949, Mao Zedong successfully defeated foreign policy for most of the
were impeditive the GMD and proclaimed China as a remainder of the 20th century
of rivalry not communist nation. The fears of an - Andrei Vyshinsky, Soviet
being created international communist revolution spokesperson, said at the UN that the
because of the increased, as now the largest country in the Marshall Plan was a ‘direct
great ideological the world (USSR) and the most populous interference by the latter in the internal
divide rooted in nation (China), together posed a real threat affairs of those countries
the country to the US and other democratic capitalist
since the nations → Novikov Telegram: Later in the same year,
Bolshevik - Successful detonation of a Soviet atomic Novikov, the Soviet ambassador to the US,
Revolution. This bomb in September 1949 - Truman also sent a telegram. Addressed to Stalin, it
perspective is supported an increased effort to develop set out concerns about US actions. He argued
very strong as even more powerful nuclear bombs. Guided that:
seen by the by his defence advisors, in what became - The US was imperialist and thus a
February 1948 known as the NSC-68 document, Truman threat to the USSR;
Czechoslovakia and other top members of the US - The US was striving for world
n revolution, government ‘came to regard the Russians supremacy
where as fanatics who would stop at nothing to - Broad plans for expansion have been
communists, spread communism all over the world developed and are being implemented
aided by Stalin’s - Invasion of South Korea - fear of aggression - US used diplomacy, and the
, operatives, establishment of a system of naval and
overthrew the air bases and the creation of
government and over-newer types of weapons to
established a pursue its expansionist aims
communist
government → In 1945, the US dropped 2 atomic bombs in
aligned with the Japan, effectively ending the war. This was
USSR’s seen as a very aggressive tactic by Stalin as,
principles despite the ongoing wartime conferences,
Truman did not care to inform him of this
decision. Revisionist historians believe this
was to intimidate Stalin and coerce him to
negotiate on Eastern Europe and Germany.
This decision also isolated Stalin as it meant
he would not get the South Sakhalin and Kuril
Islands as promised to him in the Tehran
Conference of 1943, in exchange of joining
the war against Japan.
Roles:
Fear and intimation played a key role in the emergence of superpower rivalry as they
created suspicions on both sides derived from the atomic bomb. In 1945, the US dropped 2
atomic bombs in Japan, effectively ending the war. This was seen as a very aggressive
tactic by Stalin as, despite the ongoing wartime conferences, Truman did not care to inform
him of this decision. Revisionist historians believe this was to intimidate Stalin and coerce
him to negotiate on Eastern Europe and Germany. This decision also isolated Stalin as it
meant he would not get the South Sakhalin and Kuril Islands as promised to him in the
Tehran Conference of 1943, in exchange of joining the war against Japan. This led to
mistrust and sharp exchanges in the Potsdam Conference that took place after the bombing,
being a reason why some historians believe that the Potsdam Conference was the beginning
of the Cold War as it ‘marked the real end of wartime unity’. This led Stalin to undertake his
own nuclear programme, which was successful by 1949, officially beginning the very lengthy
and expensive arms race. Thus, apart from ideology, the atomic bomb and the growing fear
of mutually assured destruction, were pivotal in the emergence of superpower rivalry.
● Orthodox historians deeply argue that it was the USSR’s ideological foundation that
was at the root of this rivalry.
● Revisionist historians tend to blame the US’s policy of containment through the
economy as groundwork for creating tensions
● Post-Revisionist historians argue that it was both powers’ ignorance towards each
other, mainly through economic and aggressive manners, that led to this rivalry
Military Reasons (Fear and Aggression):
Superpower Tensions and Rivalries
(20th Century)
1)Rivalry, Mistrust and Accord:
The breakdown of the grand alliance and the emergence of
superpower rivalry in Europe and Asia (1943–1949): role of
ideology; fear and aggression; economic interests; a comparison of
the roles of the US and the USSR
US Ideology → Capitalist; free market; Economic independence
USSR’s Ideology → Communist; state-controlled; Economic dependence from Moscow in
all Eastern European countries
- From US Perspective From USSR Perspective
Ideology → ‘Salami tactics’ after 1945 appeared to be → The Marshall Plan was seen as an
motivated by a desire to spread communism in ideological move - an example of dollar
Eastern Europe; imperialism and an attempt to win over
- Soviet supervision of organisation of Eastern satellite states
John Lewis governments in Eastern European states - Stalin was angry because the US was
Gaddis claims - Led to each of the parties being ‘sliced off’ imposing Capitalist ideologies in the
that the Cold - The communist ‘core’ was left, and were satellite states and in the Soviet
War arose eventually replaced with Moscow-trained ‘sphere of influence’
because of people - This went against the agreements at
incompatible Yalta and Potsdam
ideologies. → Set up of the Communist Information Bureau in
September 1947; (Cominform) → The United States’ economic power and its
- Instrument to increase Stalin’s control over attempt to establish world markets on
Geoffrey the Communist parties of other countries capitalist terms, looked like a quest for global
Roberts agrees - US was concerned that this organisation domination
that COMECON would actively spread communism (and - Soviet plan and ideology of world-wide
was created destabilise the democratic governments) revolution was at danger because of
primarily to this quest for global market domination
counter the → The establishment of Cominform indicated the - Czechoslovakia (1948) → Stalin
Marshall Plan, intention to spread world-wide revolution ensured no Western influence would
emphasising - The US was concerned their influence enter in his satellite state
that Stalin saw (capitalism) would be diminished
the Marshall - This reaction was further provoked by the → Tension generated by changes between
Plan as a rise of communist parties in Italy and France Yalta and Potsdam:
strategy to and the civil war in Greece, which were all - Roosevelt died and Truman replaced
spread seen as being funded by the Soviets him → Truman was a much more
capitalism. hardline president with strong
→ Soviet influence in Iran seemed to indicate a anti-communist views - Stalin had
, Soviet desire to get more influence in this area good relations with Roosevelt.
(Asia) Tensions created by ideological
- 30,000 Soviet troops in the north of Iran divergences
(who stayed there claiming they they were - At Yalta, soviet ‘sphere of influence’
needed to help put down internal rebellion), agreed, Poland and Germany as well.
encouraged a communist uprising However, at Potsdam, Truman went
- Stalin refused to take out his men after back on these agreed terms. Stalin
British and American demands was furious and tensions escalated
→ COMECON (1949) was an attempt to spread → US actions in Germany, especially the
communism. Helped to reinforce communist setting up of the new currency in Western
ideology in Eastern Europe zones, seemed to be an attempt to spread
- The trade agreements maintained Soviet western influence
domination and reinforced the isolation of
each state. Economic dependency meant
that Eastern European countries would be
less tempted to shift towards the West
Economic → The US wanted to establish open markets; it set → To the USSR, the USA’s pursuit of the
Interests up the Bretton Woods system which emphasised world’s markets looked like a quest for global
free market capitalism economic domination under its own capitalist
terms - it withdrew from the Bretton Woods
Revisionist → The US set up the Marshall Plan (1948); this was system in 1946
historian William an economic plan to rebuild Europe but had a - The Berlin Blockade (1948) is a clear
Appleman strong ideological motive - to prevent Europe’s example of the USSR’s attempt to
Williams poverty leading to communism combat capitalist economic
suggests that - Economic extension of the Truman Doctrine development in Germany. Western
the ‘open door’ (1947) products were not allowed to enter
free trade - Other goals included: East Berlin
system → Revive European economies so that - Berlin Airlift, as a response, was a
conducted by political and social stability could ensue clear success
the USA → Safeguard the future of the US economy;
supported the example is Czechoslovakia as investment → The USSR set up its own economic
economic and loans of US dollars would increase. system: COMECON to provide aid to the
expansion of a Eastern satellite states; This was also a way
nation that had → The differing economic aims in Germany helped of securing more control over these states and
mostly been to increase tension and accelerate the move rebuilding industry (60% destroyed in WW2)
anti-imperialist. towards two states. The West introduced a new - Molotov Plan in 1947 offered Russian
currency in 1948 aid to the Eastern European
- The US wanted a capitalist, free market economies
- The USSR wanted a centralised economy
with collectivisation and industrialisation → USSR felt threatened by the establishment
of the International Monetary Fund and the
→ Berlin Airlift was a clear success and showed the World Bank, which were 2 tools used to
US was not reluctant to impose and protect achieve the US’s goals of spreading capitalist
capitalism economic interests
, Fear and → The US was afraid of the spread of communism → The USSR saw the US’s actions, including
Aggression (as indicated by the Red Scare) the Marshall Plan, pursuit of open trade
- It thus was very suspicious of Stalin’s policies, introduction of the new currency in
actions and tended to see the USSR’s Germany, as aggressive;
leaders moves as a bid to spread
communism first in Europe and then the → The USSR was afraid that the USA would
Orthodox/traditio world use its economic and military might to encircle
nalist historians - Kennan’s Long Telegram: fear of the the USSR with hostile alliances;
view the USSR USSR’s expansion; he emphasised the - Formation of NATO - Military Alliance
was responsible following points: → Membership in NATO came with the
for the Cold War. → There could be no peaceful coexistence agreement that an attack on any one
Soviets were → The Soviet Union was determined to of the member nations was an attack
inevitably destroy democracy on them all and would place their
expansionist → Communism only became popular when defence forces under a joint NATO
due to their people were poor and ignorant command organisation that would
suspicion of the → The US should give economic aid to poor coordinate the defence of the West
West. The USA countries to keep them safe → Stalin was much more fearful of
had to act - Fulton Speech by Churchill: ‘Iron Curtain’ directly attacking the US or other
defensively, from showed the fear and division between East European countries because of the
the Truman and West. Called for Western alliance that force exhibited by all militaries
Doctrine and would stand firm against the communist combined
Marshall Plan to threat
the → Stalin was naturally suspicious, and so was
establishment of → Such fears were reinforced by the: likely to interpret all Western actions as
NATO. - Establishment of the Comintern attempts to weaken the USSR
- Czech coup - ‘salami tactics’ led to the - For instance, Truman committed the
downfall of democratically elected USA to global policy and moved it
Arthur government in Czechoslovakia. Eventually, away from isolationism. Stalin viewed
Schlesinger an armed coup in 1948 forced all this as a direct threat to the USSR’s
argued that the non-communist members of the government objectives because of the immense
foundations of to resign; The communists won the election. influence of the United States in
the USSR’s Truman believed that his policy of “Dollar Europe and the rest of the world.
ideology, mainly Imperialism” was at risk - Global policy became known as the
Leninism and - Success of the CCP in China - In October ‘Truman Doctrine’; foundation of US
Totalitarianism, 1949, Mao Zedong successfully defeated foreign policy for most of the
were impeditive the GMD and proclaimed China as a remainder of the 20th century
of rivalry not communist nation. The fears of an - Andrei Vyshinsky, Soviet
being created international communist revolution spokesperson, said at the UN that the
because of the increased, as now the largest country in the Marshall Plan was a ‘direct
great ideological the world (USSR) and the most populous interference by the latter in the internal
divide rooted in nation (China), together posed a real threat affairs of those countries
the country to the US and other democratic capitalist
since the nations → Novikov Telegram: Later in the same year,
Bolshevik - Successful detonation of a Soviet atomic Novikov, the Soviet ambassador to the US,
Revolution. This bomb in September 1949 - Truman also sent a telegram. Addressed to Stalin, it
perspective is supported an increased effort to develop set out concerns about US actions. He argued
very strong as even more powerful nuclear bombs. Guided that:
seen by the by his defence advisors, in what became - The US was imperialist and thus a
February 1948 known as the NSC-68 document, Truman threat to the USSR;
Czechoslovakia and other top members of the US - The US was striving for world
n revolution, government ‘came to regard the Russians supremacy
where as fanatics who would stop at nothing to - Broad plans for expansion have been
communists, spread communism all over the world developed and are being implemented
aided by Stalin’s - Invasion of South Korea - fear of aggression - US used diplomacy, and the
, operatives, establishment of a system of naval and
overthrew the air bases and the creation of
government and over-newer types of weapons to
established a pursue its expansionist aims
communist
government → In 1945, the US dropped 2 atomic bombs in
aligned with the Japan, effectively ending the war. This was
USSR’s seen as a very aggressive tactic by Stalin as,
principles despite the ongoing wartime conferences,
Truman did not care to inform him of this
decision. Revisionist historians believe this
was to intimidate Stalin and coerce him to
negotiate on Eastern Europe and Germany.
This decision also isolated Stalin as it meant
he would not get the South Sakhalin and Kuril
Islands as promised to him in the Tehran
Conference of 1943, in exchange of joining
the war against Japan.
Roles:
Fear and intimation played a key role in the emergence of superpower rivalry as they
created suspicions on both sides derived from the atomic bomb. In 1945, the US dropped 2
atomic bombs in Japan, effectively ending the war. This was seen as a very aggressive
tactic by Stalin as, despite the ongoing wartime conferences, Truman did not care to inform
him of this decision. Revisionist historians believe this was to intimidate Stalin and coerce
him to negotiate on Eastern Europe and Germany. This decision also isolated Stalin as it
meant he would not get the South Sakhalin and Kuril Islands as promised to him in the
Tehran Conference of 1943, in exchange of joining the war against Japan. This led to
mistrust and sharp exchanges in the Potsdam Conference that took place after the bombing,
being a reason why some historians believe that the Potsdam Conference was the beginning
of the Cold War as it ‘marked the real end of wartime unity’. This led Stalin to undertake his
own nuclear programme, which was successful by 1949, officially beginning the very lengthy
and expensive arms race. Thus, apart from ideology, the atomic bomb and the growing fear
of mutually assured destruction, were pivotal in the emergence of superpower rivalry.
● Orthodox historians deeply argue that it was the USSR’s ideological foundation that
was at the root of this rivalry.
● Revisionist historians tend to blame the US’s policy of containment through the
economy as groundwork for creating tensions
● Post-Revisionist historians argue that it was both powers’ ignorance towards each
other, mainly through economic and aggressive manners, that led to this rivalry
Military Reasons (Fear and Aggression):
