APC3703 Assignment 1
(COMPLETE ANSWERS)
Semester 2 2025 - DUE
August 2025
For assistance contact
Email:
,QUESTION 1: Democratic Infractions and Military Culture in Nigeria
Question:
Since independence in
1960, many military chiefs have been recycled into civilian leadership. Keeping this in mind,
critically examine Onwutuebe's (2002, e-reserve) assertion that "problems of democratic
infractions are prevalent in the current political system largely due to the persisting influence of
military culture of political leadership." [50 marks]
Introduction
Since the independence of Nigeria in 1960, the country has experienced spurts of military and
civilian rule. The military dominated Nigerian politics for nearly three decades and
left an undeniable institutional and cultural legacy. Onwutuebe (2002) argues that democratic
infractions in post-military Nigeria are, to a large extent, traceable to the continuity of military
culture among political elites. This essay critiques this statement, explaining how
militarism has continued to shape the style of leadership, institutions,
and the governance process. The essay argues that the
military heritage has encouraged authoritarianism, elite dominance, and weak democratic
institutions that support underdevelopment in Nigeria.
The Military Legacy in Nigerian Politics
Between 1966 and 1999, Nigeria was ruled by military regimes for over 29
years. Authoritarianism, decrees, and centralized command systems were now the norm.
Although democratic rule was restored in 1999, the majority of the previous military generals —
such as Olusegun Obasanjo and Muhammadu Buhari
— had adjusted to civilian life without actually reorienting their paradigms
of governance (Onwutuebe, 2002).
This blurred line between civilian and military politics is a reflection of what Onwutuebe calls
the "recycling of military elites," where retired military personnel dominate political parties
and yield power through patronage networks and coercive groups. Accordingly, political culture
remains extremely militarized, characterized by intolerance of the opposition, impunity,
and absence of accountability.
Authoritarian Leadership Styles and Personal Rule
The most obvious legacy of military culture may be the authoritarian style of
leadership that dominates Nigeria's Fourth
Republic. Successive civilian regimes have sought to copy command-and-
control techniques adopted by military rulers. Political parties are dominated
by dominant individuals or "godfathers" rather than democratic practice.
Presidents have a tendency to concentrate power, exclude contrary voices, and bypass
, institutional checks and balances.
For example, Obasanjo and Buhari, both former military presidents turned civilian
presidents, have been accused of silencing opposition, restricting the freedom of the press, and
undermining the independence of the judiciary. This concentration of power weakens democratic
accountability and constitutes a militaristic model of leadership (Onwutuebe, 2002).
Weak Institutions and Rule of Law
Democratic consolidation is premised on strong, autonomous institutions. Nigeria's political
institutions remain weak and subject to the dictate of executive power. The past experience
of military rule avowedly subjected institutions such as the judiciary, legislature, and civil
society groups to the whim of the executive. This persists today with institutions being freely co-
opted, underfunded, or bent to suit political elites' personal or party agendas.
Onwutuebe (2002) notes that this institutional failure allows for run-of-the-
mill democratic perversions, including electoral misconduct, human rights violations,
and disdain for the rule of law. Electoral bodies, for example, often experience credibility
challenges in the face of incumbency meddling, while anti-
corruption bureaus cannot exert independence to prosecute high-ranking officials.
Militarisation of Elections and Politics
Nigerian elections have mostly been marred by violence, voter intimidation,
and deployment of security agencies. Military and police deployment in the pursuit
of electoral wins are manifestations of the militarisation of
democratic politics. Elections are not promoted as a democratic political
culture but as "wars" where winning at all costs is the objective.
Onwutuebe (2002) blames this on the enduring culture of militarism, whereby competition is a
zero-sum game and competitors are seen as enemies. These inclinations lower the public trust in
democratic institutions and promote political disengagement and indifference.
Clientelism, Corruption, and Elite Domination
Nigerian military regimes made a political
economy of corruption and patronage institutionalized. The system
has been sustained by civilian governments. Political elites use state resources to
reward followership and annihilate opposition, which makes the centralization of
power firmer. Little space exists for participation by citizens without internal
democracy in parties and with elite networks' control.
These attitudes are a reflection of the vertical and secrecy-oriented nature of military regimes,
(COMPLETE ANSWERS)
Semester 2 2025 - DUE
August 2025
For assistance contact
Email:
,QUESTION 1: Democratic Infractions and Military Culture in Nigeria
Question:
Since independence in
1960, many military chiefs have been recycled into civilian leadership. Keeping this in mind,
critically examine Onwutuebe's (2002, e-reserve) assertion that "problems of democratic
infractions are prevalent in the current political system largely due to the persisting influence of
military culture of political leadership." [50 marks]
Introduction
Since the independence of Nigeria in 1960, the country has experienced spurts of military and
civilian rule. The military dominated Nigerian politics for nearly three decades and
left an undeniable institutional and cultural legacy. Onwutuebe (2002) argues that democratic
infractions in post-military Nigeria are, to a large extent, traceable to the continuity of military
culture among political elites. This essay critiques this statement, explaining how
militarism has continued to shape the style of leadership, institutions,
and the governance process. The essay argues that the
military heritage has encouraged authoritarianism, elite dominance, and weak democratic
institutions that support underdevelopment in Nigeria.
The Military Legacy in Nigerian Politics
Between 1966 and 1999, Nigeria was ruled by military regimes for over 29
years. Authoritarianism, decrees, and centralized command systems were now the norm.
Although democratic rule was restored in 1999, the majority of the previous military generals —
such as Olusegun Obasanjo and Muhammadu Buhari
— had adjusted to civilian life without actually reorienting their paradigms
of governance (Onwutuebe, 2002).
This blurred line between civilian and military politics is a reflection of what Onwutuebe calls
the "recycling of military elites," where retired military personnel dominate political parties
and yield power through patronage networks and coercive groups. Accordingly, political culture
remains extremely militarized, characterized by intolerance of the opposition, impunity,
and absence of accountability.
Authoritarian Leadership Styles and Personal Rule
The most obvious legacy of military culture may be the authoritarian style of
leadership that dominates Nigeria's Fourth
Republic. Successive civilian regimes have sought to copy command-and-
control techniques adopted by military rulers. Political parties are dominated
by dominant individuals or "godfathers" rather than democratic practice.
Presidents have a tendency to concentrate power, exclude contrary voices, and bypass
, institutional checks and balances.
For example, Obasanjo and Buhari, both former military presidents turned civilian
presidents, have been accused of silencing opposition, restricting the freedom of the press, and
undermining the independence of the judiciary. This concentration of power weakens democratic
accountability and constitutes a militaristic model of leadership (Onwutuebe, 2002).
Weak Institutions and Rule of Law
Democratic consolidation is premised on strong, autonomous institutions. Nigeria's political
institutions remain weak and subject to the dictate of executive power. The past experience
of military rule avowedly subjected institutions such as the judiciary, legislature, and civil
society groups to the whim of the executive. This persists today with institutions being freely co-
opted, underfunded, or bent to suit political elites' personal or party agendas.
Onwutuebe (2002) notes that this institutional failure allows for run-of-the-
mill democratic perversions, including electoral misconduct, human rights violations,
and disdain for the rule of law. Electoral bodies, for example, often experience credibility
challenges in the face of incumbency meddling, while anti-
corruption bureaus cannot exert independence to prosecute high-ranking officials.
Militarisation of Elections and Politics
Nigerian elections have mostly been marred by violence, voter intimidation,
and deployment of security agencies. Military and police deployment in the pursuit
of electoral wins are manifestations of the militarisation of
democratic politics. Elections are not promoted as a democratic political
culture but as "wars" where winning at all costs is the objective.
Onwutuebe (2002) blames this on the enduring culture of militarism, whereby competition is a
zero-sum game and competitors are seen as enemies. These inclinations lower the public trust in
democratic institutions and promote political disengagement and indifference.
Clientelism, Corruption, and Elite Domination
Nigerian military regimes made a political
economy of corruption and patronage institutionalized. The system
has been sustained by civilian governments. Political elites use state resources to
reward followership and annihilate opposition, which makes the centralization of
power firmer. Little space exists for participation by citizens without internal
democracy in parties and with elite networks' control.
These attitudes are a reflection of the vertical and secrecy-oriented nature of military regimes,
