PCL Research Reading and Lecture
Notes41
Ch. 2 Introduction - ANSWERS- Theories function in three ways in research. First, they prevent
our being taken in by flukes.
- Second, theories make sense of observed patterns in a way that can suggest other possibilities.
- Third, theories shape and direct research efforts, pointing toward likely discoveries through
empirical observation.
- Theory relates directly to "why questions".
paradigm - ANSWERS- A model or frame of reference through which to observe and understand.
anomalies - ANSWERS- Events that fall outside expected or standard patterns.
macrotheory - ANSWERS- A theory aimed at understanding the "big picture" of institutions,
whole societies, and the interactions among societies. Karl Marx's examination of the class
struggle is an example of macrotheory.
microtheory - ANSWERS- A theory aimed at understanding social life at the intimate level of
individuals and their interactions. Examining how the play behavior of girls differs from that of
boys would be an example of microtheory.
mesotheory - ANSWERS- Used for an intermediate level between macro and micro: studying
organizations, communities, and perhaps social categories such as gender.
positivism - ANSWERS- Introduced by Auguste Comte, this philosophical system is grounded on
the rational proof/disproof of scientific assertions; assumes a knowable, objective reality.
,conflict paradigm - ANSWERS- A paradigm that views human behavior as attempts to dominate
others or avoid being dominated by others.
ethnomethodology - ANSWERS- "Methodology of the people"
symbolic interactionism - ANSWERS- A paradigm that views human behavior as the creation of
meaning through social interactions, with those meanings conditioning subsequent interactions.
structural functionalism - ANSWERS- A paradigm that divides social phenomena into parts, each
of which serves a function for the operation of the whole.
feminist paradigms - ANSWERS- paradigms that (1) view and understand society through the
experiences of women and/or (2) examine the generally deprived status of women in society.
feminist standpoint theory - ANSWERS- a term often used in reference to the fact that women
have knowledge about their status and experience that is not available to men.
- third-wave feminism - ANSWERS- Began in the 1990's.
critical race theory - ANSWERS- A paradigm grounded in race awareness and an intention to
achieve racial justice.
interest convergence - ANSWERS- The thesis that majority group members will only support the
interests of minorities when those actions also support the interests of the majority group.
critical - ANSWERS- As a general rule, whenever you find the word critical in the name of a
paradigm or theory, it will likely refer to a nontraditional view, one that may be at odds with the
,prevailing paradigms of an academic discipline and also at odds with the mainstream structure
of society.
positivism - ANSWERS- The term positivism has generally represented the belief in a logically
ordered, objective reality that we can come to know better and better through science. This is
the view challenged today by postmodernists and others who suggest that perhaps only our
perceptions and experiences are real.
postmodernism - ANSWERS- A paradigm that questions the assumptions of positivism and
theories describing an "objective" reality.
critical realism - ANSWERS- A paradigm that holds things are real insofar as they produce
effects.
observation - ANSWERS- In social research, observation typically refers to seeing, hearing, and
(less commonly) touching.
fact - ANSWERS- Although for philosophers "fact" is as complex a notion as "reality," social
scientists generally use the term to refer to some phenomenon that has been observed.
laws - ANSWERS- Abraham Kaplan (1964: 91) defined laws as universal generalizations about
classes of facts.
principles - ANSWERS- Sometimes called principles, law are important statements about what is
so. We speak of them as being "discovered," granting, of course, that our paradigms affect what
we choose to look for and what we see.
theory - ANSWERS- A theory is a systematic explanation for observations that relate to a
particular aspect of life.
- Theories explain observations by means of concepts.
, concepts - ANSWERS- Jonathon Turner (1989: 5) calls concepts the "basic building blocks of
theory." Concepts are abstract elements representing classes of phenomena within the field of
study.
axioms or postulates - ANSWERS- Fundamental assertions, taken to be true, on which a theory
is grounded.
propositions - ANSWERS- Specific conclusions, derived from the axiomatic groundwork, about
the relationships among concepts.
hypothesis - ANSWERS- A specified testable expectation about empirical reality that follows
from a more general proposition; more generally, an expectation about the nature of things
derived from a theory. It is a statement of something that ought to be observed in the real
world if the theory is correct.
The traditional model of science: theory - ANSWERS- According to the traditional model of
science, scientists begin with a thing, from which they derive testable hypotheses.
The traditional model of science: operationalization - ANSWERS- To test any hypothesis, we
must specify the meanings of all the variables involved in it.
- One step beyond conceptualization. Operationalization is the process of developing
operational definitions, or specifying the exact operations involved in measuring a variable.
operational definition - ANSWERS- The concrete and specific definition of something in terms of
the operations by which observations are to be categorized. The operational definition of
"earning an A in this course" might be "correctly answering at least 90 percent of the final exam
questions."
disconfirmability - ANSWERS- The possibility of falsification, is an essential quality in any
hypothesis. In other words, if there is no chance that our hypothesis will be disconfirmed, it
Notes41
Ch. 2 Introduction - ANSWERS- Theories function in three ways in research. First, they prevent
our being taken in by flukes.
- Second, theories make sense of observed patterns in a way that can suggest other possibilities.
- Third, theories shape and direct research efforts, pointing toward likely discoveries through
empirical observation.
- Theory relates directly to "why questions".
paradigm - ANSWERS- A model or frame of reference through which to observe and understand.
anomalies - ANSWERS- Events that fall outside expected or standard patterns.
macrotheory - ANSWERS- A theory aimed at understanding the "big picture" of institutions,
whole societies, and the interactions among societies. Karl Marx's examination of the class
struggle is an example of macrotheory.
microtheory - ANSWERS- A theory aimed at understanding social life at the intimate level of
individuals and their interactions. Examining how the play behavior of girls differs from that of
boys would be an example of microtheory.
mesotheory - ANSWERS- Used for an intermediate level between macro and micro: studying
organizations, communities, and perhaps social categories such as gender.
positivism - ANSWERS- Introduced by Auguste Comte, this philosophical system is grounded on
the rational proof/disproof of scientific assertions; assumes a knowable, objective reality.
,conflict paradigm - ANSWERS- A paradigm that views human behavior as attempts to dominate
others or avoid being dominated by others.
ethnomethodology - ANSWERS- "Methodology of the people"
symbolic interactionism - ANSWERS- A paradigm that views human behavior as the creation of
meaning through social interactions, with those meanings conditioning subsequent interactions.
structural functionalism - ANSWERS- A paradigm that divides social phenomena into parts, each
of which serves a function for the operation of the whole.
feminist paradigms - ANSWERS- paradigms that (1) view and understand society through the
experiences of women and/or (2) examine the generally deprived status of women in society.
feminist standpoint theory - ANSWERS- a term often used in reference to the fact that women
have knowledge about their status and experience that is not available to men.
- third-wave feminism - ANSWERS- Began in the 1990's.
critical race theory - ANSWERS- A paradigm grounded in race awareness and an intention to
achieve racial justice.
interest convergence - ANSWERS- The thesis that majority group members will only support the
interests of minorities when those actions also support the interests of the majority group.
critical - ANSWERS- As a general rule, whenever you find the word critical in the name of a
paradigm or theory, it will likely refer to a nontraditional view, one that may be at odds with the
,prevailing paradigms of an academic discipline and also at odds with the mainstream structure
of society.
positivism - ANSWERS- The term positivism has generally represented the belief in a logically
ordered, objective reality that we can come to know better and better through science. This is
the view challenged today by postmodernists and others who suggest that perhaps only our
perceptions and experiences are real.
postmodernism - ANSWERS- A paradigm that questions the assumptions of positivism and
theories describing an "objective" reality.
critical realism - ANSWERS- A paradigm that holds things are real insofar as they produce
effects.
observation - ANSWERS- In social research, observation typically refers to seeing, hearing, and
(less commonly) touching.
fact - ANSWERS- Although for philosophers "fact" is as complex a notion as "reality," social
scientists generally use the term to refer to some phenomenon that has been observed.
laws - ANSWERS- Abraham Kaplan (1964: 91) defined laws as universal generalizations about
classes of facts.
principles - ANSWERS- Sometimes called principles, law are important statements about what is
so. We speak of them as being "discovered," granting, of course, that our paradigms affect what
we choose to look for and what we see.
theory - ANSWERS- A theory is a systematic explanation for observations that relate to a
particular aspect of life.
- Theories explain observations by means of concepts.
, concepts - ANSWERS- Jonathon Turner (1989: 5) calls concepts the "basic building blocks of
theory." Concepts are abstract elements representing classes of phenomena within the field of
study.
axioms or postulates - ANSWERS- Fundamental assertions, taken to be true, on which a theory
is grounded.
propositions - ANSWERS- Specific conclusions, derived from the axiomatic groundwork, about
the relationships among concepts.
hypothesis - ANSWERS- A specified testable expectation about empirical reality that follows
from a more general proposition; more generally, an expectation about the nature of things
derived from a theory. It is a statement of something that ought to be observed in the real
world if the theory is correct.
The traditional model of science: theory - ANSWERS- According to the traditional model of
science, scientists begin with a thing, from which they derive testable hypotheses.
The traditional model of science: operationalization - ANSWERS- To test any hypothesis, we
must specify the meanings of all the variables involved in it.
- One step beyond conceptualization. Operationalization is the process of developing
operational definitions, or specifying the exact operations involved in measuring a variable.
operational definition - ANSWERS- The concrete and specific definition of something in terms of
the operations by which observations are to be categorized. The operational definition of
"earning an A in this course" might be "correctly answering at least 90 percent of the final exam
questions."
disconfirmability - ANSWERS- The possibility of falsification, is an essential quality in any
hypothesis. In other words, if there is no chance that our hypothesis will be disconfirmed, it
