Describe the characteristics of stress (10)
Stress refers to the psychological and physical strain experienced when individuals perceive
a challenge or threat that they feel unable to cope with. It is defined as the tension generated
by events or situations that are difficult to manage or endure. Stress has both short-term and
long-term effects on the body, depending on the duration and intensity of the stressor.
Stress involves two main elements: physical responses and psychological responses.
Physically, stress activates the nervous system, releasing hormones such as adrenaline and
cortisol. Adrenaline helps prepare the body for the "fight or flight" response by increasing
energy and focus, while cortisol provides glucose for prolonged energy. Psychologically,
stress is explained by the transactional model proposed by Lazarus and Folkman (1984).
They suggested that stress arises from an interaction between an individual and their
environment, involving two appraisals: the primary appraisal evaluates whether a situation is
harmful or challenging, while the secondary appraisal assesses the resources available to
cope with the stressor.
Stress can be categorized into three types: acute stress, which is short-term and typically
occurs in response to immediate challenges like exams or deadlines; episodic acute stress,
which involves repeated bouts of short-term stress and can become part of an individual’s
personality or lifestyle; and chronic stress, which persists over long periods due to ongoing
issues such as poverty or difficult relationships. The Yerkes-Dodson Law demonstrates that
stress can sometimes enhance performance, as moderate levels of stress increase arousal
and focus. However, both too little and excessive stress impair performance, highlighting the
importance of balance.
Describe two biological explanations of stress (10)
One biological explanation of stress is the acute stress response, which are immediate, day
to day stressors, such as arguments, exams or running late that are managed by the
sympathomedullary pathway (SAM). When the individual perceives a threat, the
hypothalamus activates the SAM, which activates the sympathetic branch of the autonomic
nervous system, triggering the adrenal medulla to release adrenaline and noradrenaline.
These hormones are what prepare the body for the “fight or flight” response. The fight or
flight response is an early evolutionary adaptation, helping early humans survive threats in
their environments by either fighting back, or running away. Following the activation of the
fight or flight response, a number of physiological changes occur in the body such as
increased heart rate (for blood to reach muscles fast), rapid breathing, conversion of
glycogen to glucose in the liver (for energy) and dilation of pupils to let in more light (for
better vision). However, whilst beneficial during these short term stress scenarios, high
levels of adrenaline can lead to cardiovascular issues such as high blood pressure, coronary
heart disease and strokes because the body sometimes remains in a state of heightened
arousal even after the stress has passed. Once the threat has passed through, the
parasympathetic branch of the nervous system dampens the response.
, The second biological explanation of stress is the chronic stress response, which is the
response to long term stressors such as chronic health conditions or relationship problems,
that is regulated by the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis. When the stressor is
encountered, the hypothalamus releases CRH, which then stimulates the pituitary gland to
release ACTH. This ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol. Cortisol helps
the body cope with this prolonged stress by increasing glucose availability, lowering
sensitivity to pain and suppressing any non essential functions such as the immune
response. However, in the long term cortisol can impair memory. Research has been
conducted into the effects of cortisol on the body. For example, Kuhlmann et al (2005) found
that cortisol impairs memory, in particular the retrieval of negative words. This suggests that
stress hormones do in fact influence cognitive functions, and that emotional material is
especially sensitive to the memory modulating effects of stress hormones. Furthermore,
Kiecolt Glaser et al (1984) found that stress reduces immune functioning by measuring a
decrease in natural killer (NK) cell activity in medical students during exams. This highlights
the long term impact of cortisol, as it can impair immunity and make people more susceptible
to stress.
In conclusion, the SAM explains the immediate response to stressors, whilst the HPA axis
explains the long term response. Both systems show how stress can help prepare the body
for threats, however can have negative effects on the mind and body when activated in
excess.
Describe two individual differences explanations of stress (10)
One individual differences explanation of stress is the hardy personality, proposed by
Kobasa. Hardy individuals possess three key characteristics: commitment, control, and
challenge. Commitment reflects an engaged attitude towards life, allowing individuals to find
meaning even in stressful situations. Control means they believe they can influence events
rather than being passive victims of stress. Finally, challenge refers to viewing stressors as
opportunities for growth rather than as threats. These traits act as a buffer against stress by
fostering resilience, helping hardy individuals adopt active coping strategies, utilise social
support, and practice self care. Research supports this explanation, as Bartone (1999) found
that soldiers with high hardiness experienced fewer negative health effects, such as PTSD
and depression, even under significant stress. Similarly, Kobasa et al. (1986) discovered that
a hardy personality was a more effective stress buffer than exercise or social support. This
suggests that the three components of hardiness significantly mitigate the negative physical
and emotional consequences of stress.
Another individual difference explanation of stress is the distinction between Type A and
Type B personalities, introduced by Friedman and Rosenman. Type A individuals are
characterised as competitive, hostile, impatient, workaholic, and prone to rapid speech.
These traits make them more likely to activate the fight or flight response, leading to higher
levels of stress hormones like adrenaline and cortisol. Over time, this results in elevated
blood pressure and heart rate, increasing the risk of wear and tear on the blood vessels and
the likelihood of stress-related illnesses, such as coronary heart disease and strokes. In
contrast, Type B individuals are calm, relaxed, flexible, and better at expressing their
emotions, which makes them less susceptible to the negative effects of stress.
Friedman and Rosenman conducted the Western Collaborative Group Study (1960–1961), a
longitudinal study involving 3,154 men aged 39–59. Participants were assessed for Type A
Stress refers to the psychological and physical strain experienced when individuals perceive
a challenge or threat that they feel unable to cope with. It is defined as the tension generated
by events or situations that are difficult to manage or endure. Stress has both short-term and
long-term effects on the body, depending on the duration and intensity of the stressor.
Stress involves two main elements: physical responses and psychological responses.
Physically, stress activates the nervous system, releasing hormones such as adrenaline and
cortisol. Adrenaline helps prepare the body for the "fight or flight" response by increasing
energy and focus, while cortisol provides glucose for prolonged energy. Psychologically,
stress is explained by the transactional model proposed by Lazarus and Folkman (1984).
They suggested that stress arises from an interaction between an individual and their
environment, involving two appraisals: the primary appraisal evaluates whether a situation is
harmful or challenging, while the secondary appraisal assesses the resources available to
cope with the stressor.
Stress can be categorized into three types: acute stress, which is short-term and typically
occurs in response to immediate challenges like exams or deadlines; episodic acute stress,
which involves repeated bouts of short-term stress and can become part of an individual’s
personality or lifestyle; and chronic stress, which persists over long periods due to ongoing
issues such as poverty or difficult relationships. The Yerkes-Dodson Law demonstrates that
stress can sometimes enhance performance, as moderate levels of stress increase arousal
and focus. However, both too little and excessive stress impair performance, highlighting the
importance of balance.
Describe two biological explanations of stress (10)
One biological explanation of stress is the acute stress response, which are immediate, day
to day stressors, such as arguments, exams or running late that are managed by the
sympathomedullary pathway (SAM). When the individual perceives a threat, the
hypothalamus activates the SAM, which activates the sympathetic branch of the autonomic
nervous system, triggering the adrenal medulla to release adrenaline and noradrenaline.
These hormones are what prepare the body for the “fight or flight” response. The fight or
flight response is an early evolutionary adaptation, helping early humans survive threats in
their environments by either fighting back, or running away. Following the activation of the
fight or flight response, a number of physiological changes occur in the body such as
increased heart rate (for blood to reach muscles fast), rapid breathing, conversion of
glycogen to glucose in the liver (for energy) and dilation of pupils to let in more light (for
better vision). However, whilst beneficial during these short term stress scenarios, high
levels of adrenaline can lead to cardiovascular issues such as high blood pressure, coronary
heart disease and strokes because the body sometimes remains in a state of heightened
arousal even after the stress has passed. Once the threat has passed through, the
parasympathetic branch of the nervous system dampens the response.
, The second biological explanation of stress is the chronic stress response, which is the
response to long term stressors such as chronic health conditions or relationship problems,
that is regulated by the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis. When the stressor is
encountered, the hypothalamus releases CRH, which then stimulates the pituitary gland to
release ACTH. This ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol. Cortisol helps
the body cope with this prolonged stress by increasing glucose availability, lowering
sensitivity to pain and suppressing any non essential functions such as the immune
response. However, in the long term cortisol can impair memory. Research has been
conducted into the effects of cortisol on the body. For example, Kuhlmann et al (2005) found
that cortisol impairs memory, in particular the retrieval of negative words. This suggests that
stress hormones do in fact influence cognitive functions, and that emotional material is
especially sensitive to the memory modulating effects of stress hormones. Furthermore,
Kiecolt Glaser et al (1984) found that stress reduces immune functioning by measuring a
decrease in natural killer (NK) cell activity in medical students during exams. This highlights
the long term impact of cortisol, as it can impair immunity and make people more susceptible
to stress.
In conclusion, the SAM explains the immediate response to stressors, whilst the HPA axis
explains the long term response. Both systems show how stress can help prepare the body
for threats, however can have negative effects on the mind and body when activated in
excess.
Describe two individual differences explanations of stress (10)
One individual differences explanation of stress is the hardy personality, proposed by
Kobasa. Hardy individuals possess three key characteristics: commitment, control, and
challenge. Commitment reflects an engaged attitude towards life, allowing individuals to find
meaning even in stressful situations. Control means they believe they can influence events
rather than being passive victims of stress. Finally, challenge refers to viewing stressors as
opportunities for growth rather than as threats. These traits act as a buffer against stress by
fostering resilience, helping hardy individuals adopt active coping strategies, utilise social
support, and practice self care. Research supports this explanation, as Bartone (1999) found
that soldiers with high hardiness experienced fewer negative health effects, such as PTSD
and depression, even under significant stress. Similarly, Kobasa et al. (1986) discovered that
a hardy personality was a more effective stress buffer than exercise or social support. This
suggests that the three components of hardiness significantly mitigate the negative physical
and emotional consequences of stress.
Another individual difference explanation of stress is the distinction between Type A and
Type B personalities, introduced by Friedman and Rosenman. Type A individuals are
characterised as competitive, hostile, impatient, workaholic, and prone to rapid speech.
These traits make them more likely to activate the fight or flight response, leading to higher
levels of stress hormones like adrenaline and cortisol. Over time, this results in elevated
blood pressure and heart rate, increasing the risk of wear and tear on the blood vessels and
the likelihood of stress-related illnesses, such as coronary heart disease and strokes. In
contrast, Type B individuals are calm, relaxed, flexible, and better at expressing their
emotions, which makes them less susceptible to the negative effects of stress.
Friedman and Rosenman conducted the Western Collaborative Group Study (1960–1961), a
longitudinal study involving 3,154 men aged 39–59. Participants were assessed for Type A
