Parasocial Relationships
Parasocial relationships (PSRs) are one-sided relationships, where one person expends considerable
emotional energy, interest and time, although the other person (usually a celebrity) is completely unaware
of their existence.
Parasocial relationships typically develop with television celebrities, but they can also occur between
individuals and their favourite bloggers, social media users and gamers. The pervasiveness of mass
media such as television and the internet gives the viewer the illusion of having a face-to-face relationship
with a particular celebrity. This association is so strong that the celebrity becomes a meaningful figure in
the individual’s life and can produce a much more complex set of responses than just simple imitation.
The reasons why people form PSRs are as varied as the reasons for forming face-to-face relationships in real
life. For example, people may form PSRs because of a lack of real relationships in their own life. Shyness
and loneliness create a void in a person’s life that can be filled by a PSR. Such relationships, common
among celebrities and their fans, might also be particularly appealing to some individuals because the
relationship makes few demands. Because a fan does not usually have a ‘real’ relationship with the
celebrity, they do not run the risk of criticism of rejection, as might be the case in a real relationship
(McCutcheon).
Parasocial relationships are more likely to form with characters who are considered attractive by the viewer
(perception of attractiveness) and are viewed as similar to the viewer (perception of homophily).
As such relationships grow stronger, individuals may immerse themselves in increased media
presentations to ‘maintain’ the relationship (such as repeatedly watching a singer’s performance on
YouTube). Such media consumption can become ritualistic in nature, for instance viewing at certain times of
the day for certain amounts of time. Individuals may even try to intensify the relationship and show their
affection by attempting to communicate with the personality (e.g. fan mail) and purchasing memorabilia
and products associated with the personality. Individuals may even move increasingly out of touch with
their real world and deeper into their imagined world involving their relationship with the personality.
Levels of Parasocial Relationships (McCutcheon)
McCutcheon et al. developed the celebrity attitude scale (CAS), which was used in a large-scale
survey by Maltby et al. They identified three levels of parasocial relationships, each level
describing the attitudes and behaviours linked to ever more extreme forms of celebrity worship
1. Entertainment-social: This is the least intense level of celebrity worship. Fans are
attracted to a favourite celebrity and will watch, keep up with, read and learn about that
celebrity for the purposes of entertainment and gossip. For example, on the CAS they
would agree with statements such as ‘Learning the life story of my favourite celebrity is a lot
of fun’. Giles found that parasocial relationships were a fruitful source of gossip in offices.
2. Intense-personal: This is an intermediate level which reflects a greater personal
involvement in a parasocial relationship with a celebrity. It also reflects intensive and
compulsive feelings about the celebrity, akin to the obsessive tendencies of fans often
, referred to in the literature; for example: ‘I love to talk to others who admire my favourite
celebrity’. A fan may have frequent obsessive thoughts and intense feelings about her,
perhaps even considering her to be a ‘soul mate’.
3. Borderline-pathological: This is the strongest level of celebrity worship, featuring
uncontrollable fantasies and extreme behaviours. These might include spending a large
sum of money on a celebrity-related object, or being willing to perform some illegal act on
the celebrity’s say-so. For example, on the CAS they would agree with statements such as
‘If I walked through the door of my favourite celebrity’s house, he or she would be happy to
see me’. At this level, the fan can lose sight of the fact that it is a one-sided relationship.
Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS)
This was developed by McCutcheon and is made up of 3 subscales that measure different
elements of parasocial relationships:
- The entertainment-social subscale – measures social aspects associated with the
celebrity e.g. discussions with friends + attending concerts
- The intense-personal subscale – measures the intensity of feelings towards the celebrity +
obsessional tendencies
- The borderline pathological subscale – measures potentially harmful aspects of feelings
towards the celebrity
= strongly linked to levels of parasocial relationships
Some statements in the scale were filler items, designed to make respondents think about the questions
rather than falling into a pattern of automatic responses.
The scores are totalled on each of the 3 subscales, giving an overall measurement of attitudes to celebrities.
The Absorption-Addiction Model
Absorption-addiction model: Individuals can become psychologically absorbed with a
celebrity to establish a sense of fulfilment owing to deficits in real life relationships and to enable
a sense of identity. The motivational forces driving this absorption might take on an addictive
component, leading to more extreme behaviours (e.g. stalking) in order to sustain the
parasocial relationship.
McCutcheon et al. explains the tendency to form parasocial relationships in terms of deficiencies
people have in their own lives. For example, they may have a weak sense of self-identity and
also lack fulfilment in their everyday relationships. They could also be otherwise poorly
adjusted psychologically.
A parasocial relationship allows them an ‘escape from reality’, or a way of finding fulfilment that
they can’t achieve in their actual relationships. This is linked to the three levels described on the
Parasocial relationships (PSRs) are one-sided relationships, where one person expends considerable
emotional energy, interest and time, although the other person (usually a celebrity) is completely unaware
of their existence.
Parasocial relationships typically develop with television celebrities, but they can also occur between
individuals and their favourite bloggers, social media users and gamers. The pervasiveness of mass
media such as television and the internet gives the viewer the illusion of having a face-to-face relationship
with a particular celebrity. This association is so strong that the celebrity becomes a meaningful figure in
the individual’s life and can produce a much more complex set of responses than just simple imitation.
The reasons why people form PSRs are as varied as the reasons for forming face-to-face relationships in real
life. For example, people may form PSRs because of a lack of real relationships in their own life. Shyness
and loneliness create a void in a person’s life that can be filled by a PSR. Such relationships, common
among celebrities and their fans, might also be particularly appealing to some individuals because the
relationship makes few demands. Because a fan does not usually have a ‘real’ relationship with the
celebrity, they do not run the risk of criticism of rejection, as might be the case in a real relationship
(McCutcheon).
Parasocial relationships are more likely to form with characters who are considered attractive by the viewer
(perception of attractiveness) and are viewed as similar to the viewer (perception of homophily).
As such relationships grow stronger, individuals may immerse themselves in increased media
presentations to ‘maintain’ the relationship (such as repeatedly watching a singer’s performance on
YouTube). Such media consumption can become ritualistic in nature, for instance viewing at certain times of
the day for certain amounts of time. Individuals may even try to intensify the relationship and show their
affection by attempting to communicate with the personality (e.g. fan mail) and purchasing memorabilia
and products associated with the personality. Individuals may even move increasingly out of touch with
their real world and deeper into their imagined world involving their relationship with the personality.
Levels of Parasocial Relationships (McCutcheon)
McCutcheon et al. developed the celebrity attitude scale (CAS), which was used in a large-scale
survey by Maltby et al. They identified three levels of parasocial relationships, each level
describing the attitudes and behaviours linked to ever more extreme forms of celebrity worship
1. Entertainment-social: This is the least intense level of celebrity worship. Fans are
attracted to a favourite celebrity and will watch, keep up with, read and learn about that
celebrity for the purposes of entertainment and gossip. For example, on the CAS they
would agree with statements such as ‘Learning the life story of my favourite celebrity is a lot
of fun’. Giles found that parasocial relationships were a fruitful source of gossip in offices.
2. Intense-personal: This is an intermediate level which reflects a greater personal
involvement in a parasocial relationship with a celebrity. It also reflects intensive and
compulsive feelings about the celebrity, akin to the obsessive tendencies of fans often
, referred to in the literature; for example: ‘I love to talk to others who admire my favourite
celebrity’. A fan may have frequent obsessive thoughts and intense feelings about her,
perhaps even considering her to be a ‘soul mate’.
3. Borderline-pathological: This is the strongest level of celebrity worship, featuring
uncontrollable fantasies and extreme behaviours. These might include spending a large
sum of money on a celebrity-related object, or being willing to perform some illegal act on
the celebrity’s say-so. For example, on the CAS they would agree with statements such as
‘If I walked through the door of my favourite celebrity’s house, he or she would be happy to
see me’. At this level, the fan can lose sight of the fact that it is a one-sided relationship.
Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS)
This was developed by McCutcheon and is made up of 3 subscales that measure different
elements of parasocial relationships:
- The entertainment-social subscale – measures social aspects associated with the
celebrity e.g. discussions with friends + attending concerts
- The intense-personal subscale – measures the intensity of feelings towards the celebrity +
obsessional tendencies
- The borderline pathological subscale – measures potentially harmful aspects of feelings
towards the celebrity
= strongly linked to levels of parasocial relationships
Some statements in the scale were filler items, designed to make respondents think about the questions
rather than falling into a pattern of automatic responses.
The scores are totalled on each of the 3 subscales, giving an overall measurement of attitudes to celebrities.
The Absorption-Addiction Model
Absorption-addiction model: Individuals can become psychologically absorbed with a
celebrity to establish a sense of fulfilment owing to deficits in real life relationships and to enable
a sense of identity. The motivational forces driving this absorption might take on an addictive
component, leading to more extreme behaviours (e.g. stalking) in order to sustain the
parasocial relationship.
McCutcheon et al. explains the tendency to form parasocial relationships in terms of deficiencies
people have in their own lives. For example, they may have a weak sense of self-identity and
also lack fulfilment in their everyday relationships. They could also be otherwise poorly
adjusted psychologically.
A parasocial relationship allows them an ‘escape from reality’, or a way of finding fulfilment that
they can’t achieve in their actual relationships. This is linked to the three levels described on the
