South Africa Revision Notes: Chapter 2
Increased Opposition to Apartheid
Peaceful protest in the 1950s had achieved little due to repressive legislation and the Treason Trial
ANC and PAC split 1959 – divided the opposition but helped mobilise new communities.
The PAC blamed the failures of the ANC on its willingness to work with other groups.
Growth of rural movements which challenged government at local level.
Pass laws, municipal rents and prohibitions on liquor sales at the heart of protest.
Sharpeville, 1960
PAC challenged the ideology of the CA and rejected the Freedom Charter. Had an ill-defined idea of freedom.
Thought mass anger would sustain a mass movement.
The PAC had a simple philosophy that was easily understood. Gained support in the Witwatersrand and rural
areas. Estimated that by 1959 its membership exceeded the ANC by as many as 25,000.
Sobukwe ltd experience. Decided upon mass action on 21 st March 1960. Trying to pre-empt ANC which had
planned its own action for 31st March.
Activists would offer themselves up for arrest to cripple the police and the judiciary.
Sharpeville politicised by the addition of 10,000 people removed there under the Group Areas Act (1958),
insecurity of migrant workers from Lesotho, a PAC branch run by the charismatic leader Nyakane Tsolo.
20th March 1960 youths gathered on the streets and stabbed a policeman. Police broke up a meeting at the
football stadium and 2 were killed.
21st March 5000 gathered at the police station (some estimate as many as 20,000). Police refused to arrest the
crowd. Initially friendly but changed with the arrival of police reinforcements and Saracens.
Tsolo refused to disperse the crowd and was arrested. The crowd surged forward and the police opened fire
without warning just before 2pm. Two volleys, second into those running away.
At least 69 killed and 187 injured. 70% were shot in the back as they tried to flee. Police accused of brutality &
moving stones after the incident. Worsened the lack of trust between the police and locals. Police officers raged
through the town demanding to see passes.
28th March ANC organised a mass pass-burning and Luthuli burnt his in front of the press. Called for a stayaway
the end of March.
Photographs of Sharpeville appeared in the national and international press, provoking outrage. In Britain over
10,000 people protested outside the SA embassy.
1st April 1960 UN Security Council resolution condemning Sharpeville and calling for a reversal of apartheid.
Britain and France abstained, but Britain and USA supported a later resolution declaring apartheid to be a
violation of the UN charter.
Protests in Cape Town
Also a major centre of protest on 21st March 1960.
Townships of Langa and Nyanga, mainly male migrant workers.
Philip Kgosana and Christopher Mlokoti in charge of the PAC branch in Cape Town.
Crowd of 6000 gathered in Langa and police refused to make arrests, instead trying to disperse the crowd with
baton charges and live ammunition.
20 killed and rioting spread throughout the night.
25th March 50% of African workers on strike. Kgosana led a demonstration to central Cape Town.
27th March 1960 95% on strike and 50,000 attended funerals of those killed.
30th March, 30,000 Africans marched from Langa to central Cape Town, led by Kgosana.
The police promised that the Minister of Justice would meet a PAC delegation if the crowd dispersed.
Crowd dispersed, but Kgosana double-crossed and arrested.
The armed forces were deployed to break the strike and imposed order using violence.
A series of clashes occurred at Cato Manor in Durban for several days.
State response to Protests
, The government had shown that it was prepared to use force and violence to impose its authority.
30th March 1960: State of Emergency. Public meetings outlawed and police could detain people without
restriction. Over 10,000 subsequently arrested under the Public Safety Act of 1953, which required no warrants.
Mandela arrested in Orlando during a dawn raid. Luthuli arrested and assaulted. Slovo arrested as he was about
to appear in court defending the families of black miners.
8th April Unlawful Organisations Act passed, banned parties that threatened public order. Aimed at ANC and PAC.
9th April attempted assassination of Verwoerd.
In response to pass-burnings, Africans were told they could no longer draw their pensions without them.
Further Repression
Vorster, appointed 1961, instituted a new part-time Police Reserve-Unit, which developed into the Security
Police.
1962 Sabotage Act: death penalty for sabotage and onus on accused to prove innocence. Allowed to use torture,
including electric shocks, to extract confessions.
1963 General Law Amendment Act: could arrest anyone for 90 days without bringing charges. Could be
extended for another 90 days and then another ad infinitum.
1963 a new radio network set up offering direct communication between over a thousand police stations and
HQ in Pretoria.
1964 Bantu Laws Amendment Act, came into effect 1965. Authorities could deport any African from an urban
area or white farming area for any reason.
The ‘Sobukwe clause’ allowed the police to keep prisoners beyond their jail terms. Sobukwe the first victim.
Rural Rebellion: Mpondoland
Control of forests and Bantu authorities a source of conflict.
Botha Sigcau had been imposed as paramount chief by the government and was unpopular. He was accused of
‘selling’ people to the government.
March 1960 rebellion led by the Intaba movement began. One of Sigcau’s advisers, Saul Mabude’s house was
burnt down.
Rebellion organised by Solomon Madikizela and a committee of four others. Wanted to reverse Bantu
Authorities, allow people to have their own chiefs, stop betterment and convictions for taking wood from the
forest.
March to June 1960 burnt down the homesteads of chiefs who cooperated with the government and boycotted
white and Coloured trading stations.
6th June 1960 meeting of rebels at Ngquza Hill. Rumour they were going to attack Sigcau’s home.
Proclamation R400 issued to address the rebellion. The government sent in troops and 11 were killed and many
more injured.
Army and police units swept through rural districts and 5000 were arrested. By November 1960, the rebellion
had been quelled.
23 rebels were hanged for murder and Mandikizela was banished to the Transvaal.
South Africa becomes a Republic, 1961
NP wanted SA to be free from the remnants of British constitutional authority and by 1960 Verwoerd was
confident enough to hold a whites-only referendum.
1958 election – NP had a secure majority – 66% seats and 55% white votes.
Verwoerd wanted to rally additional support and stamp his authority as a representative of hardline Transvalers.
British PM Harold Macmillan visited SA in February 1960 as part of a tour of Africa.
Macmillan’s tour was to confirm Britain’s decision to decolonise more broadly, to celebrate African self-
government and strengthen Commonwealth ties. Also wanted to keep them on the side of western democracies
in the context of the Cold War.
February 1960 MacMillan’s ‘Wind of Change’ speech. Praised SA’s achievements and highlighted the links with
British industry. Wasn’t trying to call for radical change, but articulating conservative realism guiding
decolonisation. Must accept post-colonial changes and support them, lest the new states became communist.
Increased Opposition to Apartheid
Peaceful protest in the 1950s had achieved little due to repressive legislation and the Treason Trial
ANC and PAC split 1959 – divided the opposition but helped mobilise new communities.
The PAC blamed the failures of the ANC on its willingness to work with other groups.
Growth of rural movements which challenged government at local level.
Pass laws, municipal rents and prohibitions on liquor sales at the heart of protest.
Sharpeville, 1960
PAC challenged the ideology of the CA and rejected the Freedom Charter. Had an ill-defined idea of freedom.
Thought mass anger would sustain a mass movement.
The PAC had a simple philosophy that was easily understood. Gained support in the Witwatersrand and rural
areas. Estimated that by 1959 its membership exceeded the ANC by as many as 25,000.
Sobukwe ltd experience. Decided upon mass action on 21 st March 1960. Trying to pre-empt ANC which had
planned its own action for 31st March.
Activists would offer themselves up for arrest to cripple the police and the judiciary.
Sharpeville politicised by the addition of 10,000 people removed there under the Group Areas Act (1958),
insecurity of migrant workers from Lesotho, a PAC branch run by the charismatic leader Nyakane Tsolo.
20th March 1960 youths gathered on the streets and stabbed a policeman. Police broke up a meeting at the
football stadium and 2 were killed.
21st March 5000 gathered at the police station (some estimate as many as 20,000). Police refused to arrest the
crowd. Initially friendly but changed with the arrival of police reinforcements and Saracens.
Tsolo refused to disperse the crowd and was arrested. The crowd surged forward and the police opened fire
without warning just before 2pm. Two volleys, second into those running away.
At least 69 killed and 187 injured. 70% were shot in the back as they tried to flee. Police accused of brutality &
moving stones after the incident. Worsened the lack of trust between the police and locals. Police officers raged
through the town demanding to see passes.
28th March ANC organised a mass pass-burning and Luthuli burnt his in front of the press. Called for a stayaway
the end of March.
Photographs of Sharpeville appeared in the national and international press, provoking outrage. In Britain over
10,000 people protested outside the SA embassy.
1st April 1960 UN Security Council resolution condemning Sharpeville and calling for a reversal of apartheid.
Britain and France abstained, but Britain and USA supported a later resolution declaring apartheid to be a
violation of the UN charter.
Protests in Cape Town
Also a major centre of protest on 21st March 1960.
Townships of Langa and Nyanga, mainly male migrant workers.
Philip Kgosana and Christopher Mlokoti in charge of the PAC branch in Cape Town.
Crowd of 6000 gathered in Langa and police refused to make arrests, instead trying to disperse the crowd with
baton charges and live ammunition.
20 killed and rioting spread throughout the night.
25th March 50% of African workers on strike. Kgosana led a demonstration to central Cape Town.
27th March 1960 95% on strike and 50,000 attended funerals of those killed.
30th March, 30,000 Africans marched from Langa to central Cape Town, led by Kgosana.
The police promised that the Minister of Justice would meet a PAC delegation if the crowd dispersed.
Crowd dispersed, but Kgosana double-crossed and arrested.
The armed forces were deployed to break the strike and imposed order using violence.
A series of clashes occurred at Cato Manor in Durban for several days.
State response to Protests
, The government had shown that it was prepared to use force and violence to impose its authority.
30th March 1960: State of Emergency. Public meetings outlawed and police could detain people without
restriction. Over 10,000 subsequently arrested under the Public Safety Act of 1953, which required no warrants.
Mandela arrested in Orlando during a dawn raid. Luthuli arrested and assaulted. Slovo arrested as he was about
to appear in court defending the families of black miners.
8th April Unlawful Organisations Act passed, banned parties that threatened public order. Aimed at ANC and PAC.
9th April attempted assassination of Verwoerd.
In response to pass-burnings, Africans were told they could no longer draw their pensions without them.
Further Repression
Vorster, appointed 1961, instituted a new part-time Police Reserve-Unit, which developed into the Security
Police.
1962 Sabotage Act: death penalty for sabotage and onus on accused to prove innocence. Allowed to use torture,
including electric shocks, to extract confessions.
1963 General Law Amendment Act: could arrest anyone for 90 days without bringing charges. Could be
extended for another 90 days and then another ad infinitum.
1963 a new radio network set up offering direct communication between over a thousand police stations and
HQ in Pretoria.
1964 Bantu Laws Amendment Act, came into effect 1965. Authorities could deport any African from an urban
area or white farming area for any reason.
The ‘Sobukwe clause’ allowed the police to keep prisoners beyond their jail terms. Sobukwe the first victim.
Rural Rebellion: Mpondoland
Control of forests and Bantu authorities a source of conflict.
Botha Sigcau had been imposed as paramount chief by the government and was unpopular. He was accused of
‘selling’ people to the government.
March 1960 rebellion led by the Intaba movement began. One of Sigcau’s advisers, Saul Mabude’s house was
burnt down.
Rebellion organised by Solomon Madikizela and a committee of four others. Wanted to reverse Bantu
Authorities, allow people to have their own chiefs, stop betterment and convictions for taking wood from the
forest.
March to June 1960 burnt down the homesteads of chiefs who cooperated with the government and boycotted
white and Coloured trading stations.
6th June 1960 meeting of rebels at Ngquza Hill. Rumour they were going to attack Sigcau’s home.
Proclamation R400 issued to address the rebellion. The government sent in troops and 11 were killed and many
more injured.
Army and police units swept through rural districts and 5000 were arrested. By November 1960, the rebellion
had been quelled.
23 rebels were hanged for murder and Mandikizela was banished to the Transvaal.
South Africa becomes a Republic, 1961
NP wanted SA to be free from the remnants of British constitutional authority and by 1960 Verwoerd was
confident enough to hold a whites-only referendum.
1958 election – NP had a secure majority – 66% seats and 55% white votes.
Verwoerd wanted to rally additional support and stamp his authority as a representative of hardline Transvalers.
British PM Harold Macmillan visited SA in February 1960 as part of a tour of Africa.
Macmillan’s tour was to confirm Britain’s decision to decolonise more broadly, to celebrate African self-
government and strengthen Commonwealth ties. Also wanted to keep them on the side of western democracies
in the context of the Cold War.
February 1960 MacMillan’s ‘Wind of Change’ speech. Praised SA’s achievements and highlighted the links with
British industry. Wasn’t trying to call for radical change, but articulating conservative realism guiding
decolonisation. Must accept post-colonial changes and support them, lest the new states became communist.
