Lecture 1:
Aging Stereotypes:
1. “Most older people will develop dementia”
→ False. While the risk of dementia increases with age, it is not inevitable. Many older adults maintain
cognitive function into very late life.
2. “Old people are less happy and content than young people”
→ False. Research consistently shows that older adults often report equal or higher levels of life
satisfaction compared to younger groups.
3. “All old people are the same”
→ False. There is significant heterogeneity among older adults in health, cognition, personality,
lifestyle, and social circumstances.
Why Ageing? Why Study It?
(1) Expanding the Traditional View of Development
Traditional Developmental Psychology focused mainly on childhood and early adulthood, often
neglecting development in later life.
Based on the two-stage model:
Phase 1: Growth (childhood–early adulthood)
Phase 2: Decline (post-young adulthood)
This model wrongly assumes that development ends after early adulthood.
(2) The Lifespan Perspective
Development is a lifelong process, from birth to death.
Changes in cognitive and physical abilities are normal, not always negative.
Change ≠ Decline:
Ageing involves not only decline but also growth, adaptation, and new abilities.
(3) Erikson’s Psychosocial Stage Theory:
Human development spans the entire lifespan, with each stage marked by a central psychosocial
conflict.
Relevant Later-Life Stages:
Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Focus: Contributing to the next generation through work, family, or community roles.
Late Adulthood: Integrity vs. Despair
Focus: Reflecting on life with acceptance and wisdom vs. regret or fear of death.
Conclusion:
Later life can lead to emotional resilience, wisdom, and inner peace.
,(4) Schaie & Willis Stage Theory of Cognition:
Expands on cognitive development across adulthood and old age.
Focus: How cognitive abilities are applied differently at different life stages.
Cognitive Stages:
a. Achieving Stage (Early adulthood):
Using cognition to reach personal and career goals.
b. Responsible Stage (Middle adulthood):
Managing responsibilities in family, work, and community.
c. Reintegration Stage (Older adulthood):
Focusing on personally meaningful tasks.
d. Reorganizational Stage (Post-retirement):
Adjusting and restructuring life activities.
e. Legacy-Creating Stage (Late old age)
Preparing for the end of life through actions like storytelling, making wills, or passing on values
(5) Selection, Optimization & Compensation (SOC) Theory – Baltes & Baltes, 1990.
Development involves a dynamic balance between gains and losses, especially in older age.
Losses increase (e.g., slower processing speed)
Gains decrease (but experience and wisdom remain)
In old age, losses (e.g., slower information processing) tend to outnumber gains (e.g., accumulated
experience).
, Adaptation strategies:
Selection:
Focus energy on meaningful and important goals or activities.
Prioritize what's most valuable as capabilities change.
Optimization:
Work to maximize performance and maintain skills in these selected areas.
Practice and maintain efficiency where possible.
Compensation:
Use alternative methods or tools (e.g., memory aids, assistive technologies) to overcome losses
and maintain quality of life.
Additional Theoretical Perspectives on Ageing
1. Information-Processing Approach:
Focuses on specific cognitive mechanisms affected by age, rather than overall intelligence –
Highlights how different components of cognitive functioning (e.g., memory, attention, speed) are
uniquely impacted.
Processing Speed Theory:
Ageing leads to a general slowing of information processing.
Particularly affects tasks that require:
Rapid decision-making
Timed responses
Mental flexibility
Slower processing can indirectly affect higher-order cognitive tasks (e.g., reasoning,
memory encoding).
2. Biological Approaches:
Frontal Ageing Hypothesis:
Ageing particularly affects the frontal lobes, a brain region associated with:
Executive functions (planning, problem-solving)
Inhibitory control (ignoring irrelevant stimuli)
Working memory
Results in greater difficulty with tasks requiring:
Multi-tasking
Strategic thinking
Goal-directed behaviour
Conclusion: Cognitive decline with age is not uniform—some brain areas (like the frontal lobes) are
more vulnerable than others.
3. Integrative Approaches:
Biopsychosocial Model:
, Views cognitive ageing as the outcome of interacting influences:
Biological: Brain structure, health conditions, genetics
Psychological: Coping skills, beliefs, motivation
Social: Support networks, engagement, environmental context
Emphasizes that cognitive outcomes in old age are not determined by biology alone.
Example:
As primary brain circuits decline with age, the brain compensates by building “scaffolds”—
alternative neural pathways.
These scaffolds are supported by:
Cognitive training
Life experience
Continued learning
Physical exercise and social engagement
Conclusion:
The ageing brain is adaptable.
Scaffolding helps preserve cognitive function, even when original systems weaken.
Why Study Ageing? – Societal Relevance
Global Increase in Older Population:
The number of older adults (65+) is increasing worldwide due to advances in healthcare, living
conditions, and disease prevention.
United Nations (2022) Global Data:
In 1980: 260 million older adults globally.
In 2021: 761 million older adults.
Projected by 2050: 1.6 billion older adults.
Key Drivers:
Decline in cardiovascular mortality
Decline in smoking
Improved healthcare and prevention + awareness
Longer life expectancy
Implication: Older adults will soon make up a significant portion of the global population, impacting
every aspect of society—economically, socially, and medically.
Regional Trends in Population Ageing
, Eastern and South-Eastern Asia, and Central and Southern Asia are expected to see the largest
increases.
Europe and North America already have high proportions of older individuals, facing ongoing
challenges:
Retirement support
Healthcare infrastructure
Long-term care services
Consequences of Population Ageing:
Demographic Impact:
Old-Age Support Ratio:
Ratio of working-age adults (15–64) to older adults (65+)
2013: 4 workers per older adult in developed regions
Trend: Declining, increasing pressure on:
Pension systems
Healthcare costs
Workforce productivity
Dependency Ratio:
(Children under 15 + adults 65+) / Working-age population (15–64)
Higher dependency ratios mean more dependents per worker
Driven largely by increase in older adults, not just children
Healthcare and Economic Impact
Ageing populations are linked to:
Increased prevalence of chronic, non-communicable diseases
Greater use of long-term care and medical services
, Major causes of disability in older adults:
Heart disease
Cancer
Diabetes
“The Four Giants of Geriatrics”:
Immobility
Instability
Incontinence
Intellectual impairment (including dementia)
Dementia as a Public Health Challenge
Prevalence is rising due to population ageing:
2030: ~65.7 million people globally with dementia
2050: ~115.4 million (WHO, 2012)
Why it's a major concern:
One of the most expensive diseases worldwide
High demand for institutional care (e.g., nursing homes)
No effective treatment currently available
Positive Trend: Declining Dementia Incidence
Wolters et al. (2020)
Found a ~13% decline per decade in all-cause dementia incidence since 1998
Based on ~50,000 participants in large-scale population studies
Mostly observed in high-income countries
Suggests dementia may be partially preventable
Avan & Hachinski (2023) – Global Burden of Disease Study
Tracked dementia incidence from 1990–2019
Decline seen in 71 of 204 countries
Significant drops in 18 countries, 17 of which were high-income
Indicates that better public health is lowering dementia risk globally
Mukadam et al. (2024) – Associated Modifiable Factors
Identified modifiable factors contributing to the reduced incidence of dementia:
Improved education, particularly compulsory schooling
Decline in smoking rates
Aging Stereotypes:
1. “Most older people will develop dementia”
→ False. While the risk of dementia increases with age, it is not inevitable. Many older adults maintain
cognitive function into very late life.
2. “Old people are less happy and content than young people”
→ False. Research consistently shows that older adults often report equal or higher levels of life
satisfaction compared to younger groups.
3. “All old people are the same”
→ False. There is significant heterogeneity among older adults in health, cognition, personality,
lifestyle, and social circumstances.
Why Ageing? Why Study It?
(1) Expanding the Traditional View of Development
Traditional Developmental Psychology focused mainly on childhood and early adulthood, often
neglecting development in later life.
Based on the two-stage model:
Phase 1: Growth (childhood–early adulthood)
Phase 2: Decline (post-young adulthood)
This model wrongly assumes that development ends after early adulthood.
(2) The Lifespan Perspective
Development is a lifelong process, from birth to death.
Changes in cognitive and physical abilities are normal, not always negative.
Change ≠ Decline:
Ageing involves not only decline but also growth, adaptation, and new abilities.
(3) Erikson’s Psychosocial Stage Theory:
Human development spans the entire lifespan, with each stage marked by a central psychosocial
conflict.
Relevant Later-Life Stages:
Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Focus: Contributing to the next generation through work, family, or community roles.
Late Adulthood: Integrity vs. Despair
Focus: Reflecting on life with acceptance and wisdom vs. regret or fear of death.
Conclusion:
Later life can lead to emotional resilience, wisdom, and inner peace.
,(4) Schaie & Willis Stage Theory of Cognition:
Expands on cognitive development across adulthood and old age.
Focus: How cognitive abilities are applied differently at different life stages.
Cognitive Stages:
a. Achieving Stage (Early adulthood):
Using cognition to reach personal and career goals.
b. Responsible Stage (Middle adulthood):
Managing responsibilities in family, work, and community.
c. Reintegration Stage (Older adulthood):
Focusing on personally meaningful tasks.
d. Reorganizational Stage (Post-retirement):
Adjusting and restructuring life activities.
e. Legacy-Creating Stage (Late old age)
Preparing for the end of life through actions like storytelling, making wills, or passing on values
(5) Selection, Optimization & Compensation (SOC) Theory – Baltes & Baltes, 1990.
Development involves a dynamic balance between gains and losses, especially in older age.
Losses increase (e.g., slower processing speed)
Gains decrease (but experience and wisdom remain)
In old age, losses (e.g., slower information processing) tend to outnumber gains (e.g., accumulated
experience).
, Adaptation strategies:
Selection:
Focus energy on meaningful and important goals or activities.
Prioritize what's most valuable as capabilities change.
Optimization:
Work to maximize performance and maintain skills in these selected areas.
Practice and maintain efficiency where possible.
Compensation:
Use alternative methods or tools (e.g., memory aids, assistive technologies) to overcome losses
and maintain quality of life.
Additional Theoretical Perspectives on Ageing
1. Information-Processing Approach:
Focuses on specific cognitive mechanisms affected by age, rather than overall intelligence –
Highlights how different components of cognitive functioning (e.g., memory, attention, speed) are
uniquely impacted.
Processing Speed Theory:
Ageing leads to a general slowing of information processing.
Particularly affects tasks that require:
Rapid decision-making
Timed responses
Mental flexibility
Slower processing can indirectly affect higher-order cognitive tasks (e.g., reasoning,
memory encoding).
2. Biological Approaches:
Frontal Ageing Hypothesis:
Ageing particularly affects the frontal lobes, a brain region associated with:
Executive functions (planning, problem-solving)
Inhibitory control (ignoring irrelevant stimuli)
Working memory
Results in greater difficulty with tasks requiring:
Multi-tasking
Strategic thinking
Goal-directed behaviour
Conclusion: Cognitive decline with age is not uniform—some brain areas (like the frontal lobes) are
more vulnerable than others.
3. Integrative Approaches:
Biopsychosocial Model:
, Views cognitive ageing as the outcome of interacting influences:
Biological: Brain structure, health conditions, genetics
Psychological: Coping skills, beliefs, motivation
Social: Support networks, engagement, environmental context
Emphasizes that cognitive outcomes in old age are not determined by biology alone.
Example:
As primary brain circuits decline with age, the brain compensates by building “scaffolds”—
alternative neural pathways.
These scaffolds are supported by:
Cognitive training
Life experience
Continued learning
Physical exercise and social engagement
Conclusion:
The ageing brain is adaptable.
Scaffolding helps preserve cognitive function, even when original systems weaken.
Why Study Ageing? – Societal Relevance
Global Increase in Older Population:
The number of older adults (65+) is increasing worldwide due to advances in healthcare, living
conditions, and disease prevention.
United Nations (2022) Global Data:
In 1980: 260 million older adults globally.
In 2021: 761 million older adults.
Projected by 2050: 1.6 billion older adults.
Key Drivers:
Decline in cardiovascular mortality
Decline in smoking
Improved healthcare and prevention + awareness
Longer life expectancy
Implication: Older adults will soon make up a significant portion of the global population, impacting
every aspect of society—economically, socially, and medically.
Regional Trends in Population Ageing
, Eastern and South-Eastern Asia, and Central and Southern Asia are expected to see the largest
increases.
Europe and North America already have high proportions of older individuals, facing ongoing
challenges:
Retirement support
Healthcare infrastructure
Long-term care services
Consequences of Population Ageing:
Demographic Impact:
Old-Age Support Ratio:
Ratio of working-age adults (15–64) to older adults (65+)
2013: 4 workers per older adult in developed regions
Trend: Declining, increasing pressure on:
Pension systems
Healthcare costs
Workforce productivity
Dependency Ratio:
(Children under 15 + adults 65+) / Working-age population (15–64)
Higher dependency ratios mean more dependents per worker
Driven largely by increase in older adults, not just children
Healthcare and Economic Impact
Ageing populations are linked to:
Increased prevalence of chronic, non-communicable diseases
Greater use of long-term care and medical services
, Major causes of disability in older adults:
Heart disease
Cancer
Diabetes
“The Four Giants of Geriatrics”:
Immobility
Instability
Incontinence
Intellectual impairment (including dementia)
Dementia as a Public Health Challenge
Prevalence is rising due to population ageing:
2030: ~65.7 million people globally with dementia
2050: ~115.4 million (WHO, 2012)
Why it's a major concern:
One of the most expensive diseases worldwide
High demand for institutional care (e.g., nursing homes)
No effective treatment currently available
Positive Trend: Declining Dementia Incidence
Wolters et al. (2020)
Found a ~13% decline per decade in all-cause dementia incidence since 1998
Based on ~50,000 participants in large-scale population studies
Mostly observed in high-income countries
Suggests dementia may be partially preventable
Avan & Hachinski (2023) – Global Burden of Disease Study
Tracked dementia incidence from 1990–2019
Decline seen in 71 of 204 countries
Significant drops in 18 countries, 17 of which were high-income
Indicates that better public health is lowering dementia risk globally
Mukadam et al. (2024) – Associated Modifiable Factors
Identified modifiable factors contributing to the reduced incidence of dementia:
Improved education, particularly compulsory schooling
Decline in smoking rates
