APC3703
MAY JUNE PORTFOLIO 2025
Unique Number:
Due date: 29 May 2025
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION A ................................................................................................................3
QUESTION 1 ...........................................................................................................3
The Enduring Impact of Military Culture on Nigeria‘s Democratic Infractions .......3
QUESTION 2 ...........................................................................................................8
CIVIL SOCIETY AND DEMOCRATIC CONSOLIDATION IN GHANA: A CRITICAL
ANALYSIS OF SEFA-NYARKO‘S VIEW ..............................................................8
QUESTION 3 .........................................................................................................13
Democratic Consolidation in Ghana and Nigeria: A Comparative Analysis ........13
SECTION B ..............................................................................................................19
QUESTION 4 .........................................................................................................19
Evaluating Algeria‘s ‗Revolutionary Situation‘: The Peaceful Fall of Bouteflika ..19
QUESTION 5 .........................................................................................................23
The Return to Authoritarianism in Post-2013 Egypt: Erasure of Democratic Gains after
the 2011 Uprising ...............................................................................................23
QUESTION 6 .........................................................................................................28
From Zéroual to Bouteflika: Evaluating Democratic Reforms in 1990s Algeria ..28
DISCLAIMER & TERMS OF USE
Educational Aid: These study notes are intended to be used as educational resources and should not be seen as a
replacement for individual research, critical analysis, or professional consultation. Students are encouraged to perform
their own research and seek advice from their instructors or academic advisors for specific assignment guidelines.
Personal Responsibility: While every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the information in
these study notes, the seller does not guarantee the completeness or correctness of all content. The buyer is
responsible for verifying the accuracy of the information and exercising their own judgment when applying it to their
assignments.
Academic Integrity: It is essential for students to maintain academic integrity and follow their institution's policies
regarding plagiarism, citation, and referencing. These study notes should be used as learning tools and sources of
inspiration. Any direct reproduction of the content without proper citation and acknowledgment may be considered
academic misconduct.
Limited Liability: The seller shall not be liable for any direct or indirect damages, losses, or consequences arising from
the use of these notes. This includes, but is not limited to, poor academic performance, penalties, or any other negative
consequences resulting from the application or misuse of the information provided.
, For additional support +27 81 278 3372
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION A ................................................................................................................ 3
QUESTION 1 .......................................................................................................... 3
The Enduring Impact of Military Culture on Nigeria‘s Democratic Infractions ...... 3
QUESTION 2 .......................................................................................................... 8
CIVIL SOCIETY AND DEMOCRATIC CONSOLIDATION IN GHANA: A
CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF SEFA-NYARKO‘S VIEW ............................................ 8
QUESTION 3 ........................................................................................................ 13
Democratic Consolidation in Ghana and Nigeria: A Comparative Analysis ....... 13
SECTION B .............................................................................................................. 19
QUESTION 4 ........................................................................................................ 19
Evaluating Algeria‘s ‗Revolutionary Situation‘: The Peaceful Fall of Bouteflika . 19
QUESTION 5 ........................................................................................................ 23
The Return to Authoritarianism in Post-2013 Egypt: Erasure of Democratic Gains
after the 2011 Uprising ...................................................................................... 23
QUESTION 6 ........................................................................................................ 28
From Zéroual to Bouteflika: Evaluating Democratic Reforms in 1990s Algeria .. 28
, For additional support +27 81 278 3372
SECTION A
QUESTION 1
The Enduring Impact of Military Culture on Nigeria’s Democratic Infractions
1. Introduction
Since gaining independence in 1960, Nigeria has experienced a turbulent political
history marked by cycles of military coups and attempts at democratic governance. A
prominent feature of Nigeria‘s post-colonial political landscape is the dominance of
military rulers, many of whom later rebranded themselves as civilian leaders. As
noted by Onwutuebe (2002), the problems of democratic infractions are deeply
rooted in the persisting influence of military culture on political leadership in Nigeria.
This essay critically examines this assertion by exploring how the military‘s
authoritarian legacy has shaped the country‘s democratic processes, institutions,
and political behaviour. The analysis draws on Onwutuebe‘s argument and other
scholarly sources to evaluate the extent to which military culture continues to
undermine Nigeria‘s democracy.
2. Military Rule in Nigeria: A Historical Overview
Between 1966 and 1999, Nigeria was ruled by the military for nearly 30 years. The
first military coup in 1966 set the stage for a series of interventions that interrupted
democratic governance. Successive military regimes justified their takeovers as
necessary to correct civilian corruption and maintain national unity. However, these
regimes often ruled with authoritarianism, suspending constitutions, dissolving
parliaments, and curbing civil liberties (Onwutuebe, 2002).
Military rule became institutionalised, shaping public expectations and political
norms. Leaders such as Olusegun Obasanjo, Muhammadu Buhari, and Ibrahim
Babangida became powerful figures during this period. Even after the formal return
to democracy in 1999, former military leaders remained central in politics. For
example, Obasanjo transitioned from military ruler (1976–1979) to elected president
(1999–2007), reflecting the recycling of military elites in civilian roles (Onwutuebe,
2002).
3. Features of Military Political Culture
, For additional support +27 81 278 3372
To understand its lasting influence, it is essential to define the key features of military
political culture. Military leadership is typically characterised by centralised
command, hierarchical authority, and a focus on order and discipline. In contrast,
democratic governance values participation, accountability, pluralism, and the rule of
law.
According to Onwutuebe (2002), military culture prioritises obedience over
deliberation, coercion over consent, and secrecy over transparency. These values,
when transferred to civilian governance, create a political environment that is hostile
to democratic norms. As former military leaders transitioned into civilian politics, they
often maintained these authoritarian tendencies, undermining democratic
consolidation.
4. Democratic Infractions in Nigeria
4.1 Electoral Manipulations and Rigging
One of the most visible signs of democratic failure in Nigeria is the manipulation of
elections. Although the country holds regular elections, they are often marred by
vote-buying, ballot box snatching, intimidation, and fraud. These practices reflect a
military-style approach to power—where victory is pursued at any cost, and
legitimacy is secondary to control.
Onwutuebe (2002) argues that former military leaders-turned-politicians brought with
them the idea that power is not earned through popular support but seized and
maintained through force. This legacy is evident in how elections are treated as
―wars‖ between political opponents, with a win-at-all-costs mentality that
delegitimises democratic processes.
4.2 Suppression of Opposition and Civil Liberties
Another hallmark of military influence is the suppression of dissent. In a healthy
democracy, opposition parties and critical voices play a vital role in holding power to
account. However, in Nigeria, the political elite often view opposition as enemies
rather than as necessary participants in governance.
Instances of state violence against protesters, restrictions on media freedom, and
the misuse of security agencies to silence critics are widespread. The #EndSARS
MAY JUNE PORTFOLIO 2025
Unique Number:
Due date: 29 May 2025
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION A ................................................................................................................3
QUESTION 1 ...........................................................................................................3
The Enduring Impact of Military Culture on Nigeria‘s Democratic Infractions .......3
QUESTION 2 ...........................................................................................................8
CIVIL SOCIETY AND DEMOCRATIC CONSOLIDATION IN GHANA: A CRITICAL
ANALYSIS OF SEFA-NYARKO‘S VIEW ..............................................................8
QUESTION 3 .........................................................................................................13
Democratic Consolidation in Ghana and Nigeria: A Comparative Analysis ........13
SECTION B ..............................................................................................................19
QUESTION 4 .........................................................................................................19
Evaluating Algeria‘s ‗Revolutionary Situation‘: The Peaceful Fall of Bouteflika ..19
QUESTION 5 .........................................................................................................23
The Return to Authoritarianism in Post-2013 Egypt: Erasure of Democratic Gains after
the 2011 Uprising ...............................................................................................23
QUESTION 6 .........................................................................................................28
From Zéroual to Bouteflika: Evaluating Democratic Reforms in 1990s Algeria ..28
DISCLAIMER & TERMS OF USE
Educational Aid: These study notes are intended to be used as educational resources and should not be seen as a
replacement for individual research, critical analysis, or professional consultation. Students are encouraged to perform
their own research and seek advice from their instructors or academic advisors for specific assignment guidelines.
Personal Responsibility: While every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the information in
these study notes, the seller does not guarantee the completeness or correctness of all content. The buyer is
responsible for verifying the accuracy of the information and exercising their own judgment when applying it to their
assignments.
Academic Integrity: It is essential for students to maintain academic integrity and follow their institution's policies
regarding plagiarism, citation, and referencing. These study notes should be used as learning tools and sources of
inspiration. Any direct reproduction of the content without proper citation and acknowledgment may be considered
academic misconduct.
Limited Liability: The seller shall not be liable for any direct or indirect damages, losses, or consequences arising from
the use of these notes. This includes, but is not limited to, poor academic performance, penalties, or any other negative
consequences resulting from the application or misuse of the information provided.
, For additional support +27 81 278 3372
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION A ................................................................................................................ 3
QUESTION 1 .......................................................................................................... 3
The Enduring Impact of Military Culture on Nigeria‘s Democratic Infractions ...... 3
QUESTION 2 .......................................................................................................... 8
CIVIL SOCIETY AND DEMOCRATIC CONSOLIDATION IN GHANA: A
CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF SEFA-NYARKO‘S VIEW ............................................ 8
QUESTION 3 ........................................................................................................ 13
Democratic Consolidation in Ghana and Nigeria: A Comparative Analysis ....... 13
SECTION B .............................................................................................................. 19
QUESTION 4 ........................................................................................................ 19
Evaluating Algeria‘s ‗Revolutionary Situation‘: The Peaceful Fall of Bouteflika . 19
QUESTION 5 ........................................................................................................ 23
The Return to Authoritarianism in Post-2013 Egypt: Erasure of Democratic Gains
after the 2011 Uprising ...................................................................................... 23
QUESTION 6 ........................................................................................................ 28
From Zéroual to Bouteflika: Evaluating Democratic Reforms in 1990s Algeria .. 28
, For additional support +27 81 278 3372
SECTION A
QUESTION 1
The Enduring Impact of Military Culture on Nigeria’s Democratic Infractions
1. Introduction
Since gaining independence in 1960, Nigeria has experienced a turbulent political
history marked by cycles of military coups and attempts at democratic governance. A
prominent feature of Nigeria‘s post-colonial political landscape is the dominance of
military rulers, many of whom later rebranded themselves as civilian leaders. As
noted by Onwutuebe (2002), the problems of democratic infractions are deeply
rooted in the persisting influence of military culture on political leadership in Nigeria.
This essay critically examines this assertion by exploring how the military‘s
authoritarian legacy has shaped the country‘s democratic processes, institutions,
and political behaviour. The analysis draws on Onwutuebe‘s argument and other
scholarly sources to evaluate the extent to which military culture continues to
undermine Nigeria‘s democracy.
2. Military Rule in Nigeria: A Historical Overview
Between 1966 and 1999, Nigeria was ruled by the military for nearly 30 years. The
first military coup in 1966 set the stage for a series of interventions that interrupted
democratic governance. Successive military regimes justified their takeovers as
necessary to correct civilian corruption and maintain national unity. However, these
regimes often ruled with authoritarianism, suspending constitutions, dissolving
parliaments, and curbing civil liberties (Onwutuebe, 2002).
Military rule became institutionalised, shaping public expectations and political
norms. Leaders such as Olusegun Obasanjo, Muhammadu Buhari, and Ibrahim
Babangida became powerful figures during this period. Even after the formal return
to democracy in 1999, former military leaders remained central in politics. For
example, Obasanjo transitioned from military ruler (1976–1979) to elected president
(1999–2007), reflecting the recycling of military elites in civilian roles (Onwutuebe,
2002).
3. Features of Military Political Culture
, For additional support +27 81 278 3372
To understand its lasting influence, it is essential to define the key features of military
political culture. Military leadership is typically characterised by centralised
command, hierarchical authority, and a focus on order and discipline. In contrast,
democratic governance values participation, accountability, pluralism, and the rule of
law.
According to Onwutuebe (2002), military culture prioritises obedience over
deliberation, coercion over consent, and secrecy over transparency. These values,
when transferred to civilian governance, create a political environment that is hostile
to democratic norms. As former military leaders transitioned into civilian politics, they
often maintained these authoritarian tendencies, undermining democratic
consolidation.
4. Democratic Infractions in Nigeria
4.1 Electoral Manipulations and Rigging
One of the most visible signs of democratic failure in Nigeria is the manipulation of
elections. Although the country holds regular elections, they are often marred by
vote-buying, ballot box snatching, intimidation, and fraud. These practices reflect a
military-style approach to power—where victory is pursued at any cost, and
legitimacy is secondary to control.
Onwutuebe (2002) argues that former military leaders-turned-politicians brought with
them the idea that power is not earned through popular support but seized and
maintained through force. This legacy is evident in how elections are treated as
―wars‖ between political opponents, with a win-at-all-costs mentality that
delegitimises democratic processes.
4.2 Suppression of Opposition and Civil Liberties
Another hallmark of military influence is the suppression of dissent. In a healthy
democracy, opposition parties and critical voices play a vital role in holding power to
account. However, in Nigeria, the political elite often view opposition as enemies
rather than as necessary participants in governance.
Instances of state violence against protesters, restrictions on media freedom, and
the misuse of security agencies to silence critics are widespread. The #EndSARS
