TABLE OF CONTENT
1. DRUG POLICY – PARTIM COLMAN........................................................................................................... 2
EXPLAINING THE BASICS: ILLICIT DRUG MARKETS ........................................................................................................... 2
Introduction on Illicit Drug Markets ............................................................................................................... 2
4 Levels of the Drug Supply Market ................................................................................................................ 2
EXPLAINING THE BASICS: NEW PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCES (NPS) ................................................................................... 5
What? ............................................................................................................................................................. 5
NPS in Belgium................................................................................................................................................ 5
Legislative Answer (Belgium).......................................................................................................................... 6
DRUG POLICY IN EUROPE .......................................................................................................................................... 7
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 7
Guest Lecture – Liesbeth Vandam (European Union Drugs Agency – EUDA) ................................................. 8
NEw Developments in the EU Drug Situation: Challenges and Opportunities for Policy Making ................... 8
DRUG SUPPLY IN THE NETHERLANDS .......................................................................................................................... 18
Introduction: Dutch Drug Markets................................................................................................................ 18
Guest Lecture: Drug-Related Organised Crime in the Netherlands .............................................................. 20
ILLICIT DRUGS AND CONFLICT ................................................................................................................................... 24
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 24
Guest Lecture: Illicit Drugs and Conflict ........................................................................................................ 27
DRUG POLICY AND OPIOID EPIDEMIC IN THE US ........................................................................................................ 30
Introduction: The US Opioid Crisis ................................................................................................................ 30
Guest Lecture ................................................................................................................................................ 31
SYNTHETIC DRUG PRODUCTION, TRAFFICKING AND DISTRIBUTION IN LATIN-AMERICA ......................................................... 41
Introduction: Synthetic Drugs (Focus on Methamphetamine)...................................................................... 41
Guest Lecutre: Mexico’s Drug Wars (Which Are Not ONly About Drugs) ..................................................... 43
DRUG COURIERS AT THE RETAIL LEVEL, FOCUS ON UK .................................................................................................. 45
Introduction: Drug Couriers at Retail Level ................................................................................................... 45
Guest Lecture – County Lines ........................................................................................................................ 50
2. DRUG POLICY – PARTIM DECORTE ........................................................................................................ 55
CANNABIS: THE PLANT, ITS CULTIVATION, USE, AND CANNABIS CONTROL REGIME ............................................................. 55
Part 1: Cannabis and Cannabis-Based Products ........................................................................................... 55
PArt 2: CannabIs USe .................................................................................................................................... 57
Part 3: Cannabis Production and Market ..................................................................................................... 59
Part 4: History of Cannabis and its Control................................................................................................... 62
CANNABIS: REGULATORY MODELS ............................................................................................................................ 66
First Part ....................................................................................................................................................... 66
Second Part:.................................................................................................................................................. 70
CANNABIS SOCIAL CLUBS AND VARIANTS.................................................................................................................... 77
CSC in the Broader Cannabis Policy Debate .................................................................................................. 77
Introducing the Cannabis Social Club (CSC) .................................................................................................. 77
CSCs’ Origin................................................................................................................................................... 77
Methodological Insights and Unresolved Issues from the Study of Cannabis Social Clubs ........................... 78
The Legal Framework(s) for Cannabis Social Clubs....................................................................................... 80
The Case of Uruguay..................................................................................................................................... 81
The European Exception: Malta.................................................................................................................... 82
An Update on CSC Practices.......................................................................................................................... 82
CSCs in Europe: closer Look .......................................................................................................................... 83
Concluding Thoughts .................................................................................................................................... 84
DRUG POLICY IN BELGIUM: DEBATE AND REFLECTION ................................................................................................... 85
1. Why is Regulating Drugs A Valuable Path to Follow? .......................................................................... 85
2. Barriers to Debate................................................................................................................................ 88
3. Drug Regulation: A Range of Options .................................................................................................. 89
1
, 1. DRUG POLICY – PARTIM COLMAN
EXPLAINING THE BASICS: ILLICIT DRUG MARKETS
INTRODUCTION ON ILLICIT DRUG MARKETS
• The EU illicit drug market = the largest criminal market in the EU
o >1/3 EU organized crime: production, traffic and smuggle of illicit drugs
o Large profits involved f.e. EU retail drug market is estimated to be worth at least 24
billion euro/year.
• Link between illicit drug economy and legal economy:
o 44% of profits re-invested in the legal economy of Europe by money laundering
(EMCDDA, 2016)
o Infiltration of organized crime into political, socio-economic and financial
power: undermining
• Differences in organisational structures (2 structures):
o Various organisations from social supply to organized crime
o When looking at the criminal structure of groups involved in large-scale
drug production, we notice several organisational structures, amongst others:
Pyramid Flexible partnership
• Hierarchical structure and highly • Flexible network structures
disciplined • Decentralized, fragmented and
• Clear leadership situational
• Clear distribution of tasks • Individuals are organized in small
• Stability groups
• Informal and loosely organized
associations of entrepreneurs
Drug markets are adaptive and resilient
• They learn from legal businesses (organization, innovation, etc.) + risk adaptation
o Many want to get a piece of the pie
o Responding to opportunities
o Role of globalization (transport and technology)
o YET: illicit drug markets are not bound by regulation/lack of resources
4 LEVELS OF THE DRUG SUPPLY MARKET
• Supply chain = trajectory of each product, from production to retail
o Four levels:
Middle Retail
Production Wholesale
Level Level
o E.g.: Production cocaine in Colombia à export to Europe (100 kg) à cutting and dis-
tribution to various dealers (in packs of 5 kg) à distribution in user quantities and sale
to users (1g – 5g)
2
, Production
Distinction between upper
level, middle level and
lower level à Sometimes
hard to make a distinction
Wholesale
Middle Level
Retail
Consumer
PRODUCTION
• Opium: Asia (Afghanistan, Myanmar), Latin America (Mexico, Colombia & Guatemala)
• Cocaine: Latin America (Colombia, Peru, Bolivia...).
• Synthetic drugs: Europe
o Amphetamine/XTC: Belgium, Netherlands, Germany, Bulgaria...
o Methamphetamine (used in Europe): Czech Republic, Netherlands...
• Cannabis: 135 countries report cannabis production à global phenomenon
o Largest cannabis resin producers (2010-2015): intra-regional and inter-regional traffic:
Morocco, Afghanistan, Lebanon, India & Pakistan
o Largest herbal cannabis producers (2010-2015)- intra-regional traffic= within the
same area
WHOLESALE
• By air, sea, road...
• Less clear overview
• Modus Operandi changes based on timing, place and in response to situational and legal factors
• Legal obstacles to the fight against criminal networks = problems with jurisdictions
o Producers and distributors stay in different countries
o Confiscations and arrests take place in transit countries
à Need for coordinated, integrated and transnational responses!
3
, MIDDLE LEVEL
• Broad phenomenon
o Little research à limited knowledge
o No clear and global accepted definition!
o “Strategic link between wholesale and retail”
o Transaction volume (e.g. Cocaine à 1- 5 kg)
• Organisation structure
o Roles may be swapped, people come and go
o Typology based on structure (f.e. family business) or tasks (repacking, distributing)
o The role of family ties and ethnicity remains important
RETAIL LEVEL
• Relatively good overview of individuals involved
• Retail level characterized by high variability
o The market does not follow predictable structures
• Dealers
o Make little profit, some dealers deal to finance their own drug use
o Most dealers work independently or in separate groups (of 2 or 3 people) with-
out hierarchy
• Cannabis retail market is estimated to be the largest, followed by the heroin retail market
and the cocaine retail market
Product prices rise
the closer it gets
to the consumer!
Who makes the highest profits?
4
1. DRUG POLICY – PARTIM COLMAN........................................................................................................... 2
EXPLAINING THE BASICS: ILLICIT DRUG MARKETS ........................................................................................................... 2
Introduction on Illicit Drug Markets ............................................................................................................... 2
4 Levels of the Drug Supply Market ................................................................................................................ 2
EXPLAINING THE BASICS: NEW PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCES (NPS) ................................................................................... 5
What? ............................................................................................................................................................. 5
NPS in Belgium................................................................................................................................................ 5
Legislative Answer (Belgium).......................................................................................................................... 6
DRUG POLICY IN EUROPE .......................................................................................................................................... 7
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 7
Guest Lecture – Liesbeth Vandam (European Union Drugs Agency – EUDA) ................................................. 8
NEw Developments in the EU Drug Situation: Challenges and Opportunities for Policy Making ................... 8
DRUG SUPPLY IN THE NETHERLANDS .......................................................................................................................... 18
Introduction: Dutch Drug Markets................................................................................................................ 18
Guest Lecture: Drug-Related Organised Crime in the Netherlands .............................................................. 20
ILLICIT DRUGS AND CONFLICT ................................................................................................................................... 24
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 24
Guest Lecture: Illicit Drugs and Conflict ........................................................................................................ 27
DRUG POLICY AND OPIOID EPIDEMIC IN THE US ........................................................................................................ 30
Introduction: The US Opioid Crisis ................................................................................................................ 30
Guest Lecture ................................................................................................................................................ 31
SYNTHETIC DRUG PRODUCTION, TRAFFICKING AND DISTRIBUTION IN LATIN-AMERICA ......................................................... 41
Introduction: Synthetic Drugs (Focus on Methamphetamine)...................................................................... 41
Guest Lecutre: Mexico’s Drug Wars (Which Are Not ONly About Drugs) ..................................................... 43
DRUG COURIERS AT THE RETAIL LEVEL, FOCUS ON UK .................................................................................................. 45
Introduction: Drug Couriers at Retail Level ................................................................................................... 45
Guest Lecture – County Lines ........................................................................................................................ 50
2. DRUG POLICY – PARTIM DECORTE ........................................................................................................ 55
CANNABIS: THE PLANT, ITS CULTIVATION, USE, AND CANNABIS CONTROL REGIME ............................................................. 55
Part 1: Cannabis and Cannabis-Based Products ........................................................................................... 55
PArt 2: CannabIs USe .................................................................................................................................... 57
Part 3: Cannabis Production and Market ..................................................................................................... 59
Part 4: History of Cannabis and its Control................................................................................................... 62
CANNABIS: REGULATORY MODELS ............................................................................................................................ 66
First Part ....................................................................................................................................................... 66
Second Part:.................................................................................................................................................. 70
CANNABIS SOCIAL CLUBS AND VARIANTS.................................................................................................................... 77
CSC in the Broader Cannabis Policy Debate .................................................................................................. 77
Introducing the Cannabis Social Club (CSC) .................................................................................................. 77
CSCs’ Origin................................................................................................................................................... 77
Methodological Insights and Unresolved Issues from the Study of Cannabis Social Clubs ........................... 78
The Legal Framework(s) for Cannabis Social Clubs....................................................................................... 80
The Case of Uruguay..................................................................................................................................... 81
The European Exception: Malta.................................................................................................................... 82
An Update on CSC Practices.......................................................................................................................... 82
CSCs in Europe: closer Look .......................................................................................................................... 83
Concluding Thoughts .................................................................................................................................... 84
DRUG POLICY IN BELGIUM: DEBATE AND REFLECTION ................................................................................................... 85
1. Why is Regulating Drugs A Valuable Path to Follow? .......................................................................... 85
2. Barriers to Debate................................................................................................................................ 88
3. Drug Regulation: A Range of Options .................................................................................................. 89
1
, 1. DRUG POLICY – PARTIM COLMAN
EXPLAINING THE BASICS: ILLICIT DRUG MARKETS
INTRODUCTION ON ILLICIT DRUG MARKETS
• The EU illicit drug market = the largest criminal market in the EU
o >1/3 EU organized crime: production, traffic and smuggle of illicit drugs
o Large profits involved f.e. EU retail drug market is estimated to be worth at least 24
billion euro/year.
• Link between illicit drug economy and legal economy:
o 44% of profits re-invested in the legal economy of Europe by money laundering
(EMCDDA, 2016)
o Infiltration of organized crime into political, socio-economic and financial
power: undermining
• Differences in organisational structures (2 structures):
o Various organisations from social supply to organized crime
o When looking at the criminal structure of groups involved in large-scale
drug production, we notice several organisational structures, amongst others:
Pyramid Flexible partnership
• Hierarchical structure and highly • Flexible network structures
disciplined • Decentralized, fragmented and
• Clear leadership situational
• Clear distribution of tasks • Individuals are organized in small
• Stability groups
• Informal and loosely organized
associations of entrepreneurs
Drug markets are adaptive and resilient
• They learn from legal businesses (organization, innovation, etc.) + risk adaptation
o Many want to get a piece of the pie
o Responding to opportunities
o Role of globalization (transport and technology)
o YET: illicit drug markets are not bound by regulation/lack of resources
4 LEVELS OF THE DRUG SUPPLY MARKET
• Supply chain = trajectory of each product, from production to retail
o Four levels:
Middle Retail
Production Wholesale
Level Level
o E.g.: Production cocaine in Colombia à export to Europe (100 kg) à cutting and dis-
tribution to various dealers (in packs of 5 kg) à distribution in user quantities and sale
to users (1g – 5g)
2
, Production
Distinction between upper
level, middle level and
lower level à Sometimes
hard to make a distinction
Wholesale
Middle Level
Retail
Consumer
PRODUCTION
• Opium: Asia (Afghanistan, Myanmar), Latin America (Mexico, Colombia & Guatemala)
• Cocaine: Latin America (Colombia, Peru, Bolivia...).
• Synthetic drugs: Europe
o Amphetamine/XTC: Belgium, Netherlands, Germany, Bulgaria...
o Methamphetamine (used in Europe): Czech Republic, Netherlands...
• Cannabis: 135 countries report cannabis production à global phenomenon
o Largest cannabis resin producers (2010-2015): intra-regional and inter-regional traffic:
Morocco, Afghanistan, Lebanon, India & Pakistan
o Largest herbal cannabis producers (2010-2015)- intra-regional traffic= within the
same area
WHOLESALE
• By air, sea, road...
• Less clear overview
• Modus Operandi changes based on timing, place and in response to situational and legal factors
• Legal obstacles to the fight against criminal networks = problems with jurisdictions
o Producers and distributors stay in different countries
o Confiscations and arrests take place in transit countries
à Need for coordinated, integrated and transnational responses!
3
, MIDDLE LEVEL
• Broad phenomenon
o Little research à limited knowledge
o No clear and global accepted definition!
o “Strategic link between wholesale and retail”
o Transaction volume (e.g. Cocaine à 1- 5 kg)
• Organisation structure
o Roles may be swapped, people come and go
o Typology based on structure (f.e. family business) or tasks (repacking, distributing)
o The role of family ties and ethnicity remains important
RETAIL LEVEL
• Relatively good overview of individuals involved
• Retail level characterized by high variability
o The market does not follow predictable structures
• Dealers
o Make little profit, some dealers deal to finance their own drug use
o Most dealers work independently or in separate groups (of 2 or 3 people) with-
out hierarchy
• Cannabis retail market is estimated to be the largest, followed by the heroin retail market
and the cocaine retail market
Product prices rise
the closer it gets
to the consumer!
Who makes the highest profits?
4
