DIPLOMATIC TRADECRAFT
Chapter 1: The Diplomatic Landscape
National interest and international relations
Diplomat = an impartial person authorized to negotiate on behalf of a state, for the peaceful conduct of
international relations.
Diplomacy is managed by the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (Treaty 1) and
supplemented by the 1963 Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (Treaty 2).
Diplomacy serves the national interest.
National security and foreign policy
National security = the provision, protection and defense of the security of a country and its people.
- Domestic and foreign policy instruments
Foreign policy = a set of policies aimed at countering external threats, furthering interests and taking
advantage of opportunities.
- Instruments: diplomacy, development, science and technology.
- Country = sovereignty and territorial integrity.
Economic security is important, because the lack of it is a potential cause of instability and conflict.
Armies are the pillar of a country’s security, but a problem/ crisis would be resolved long before if diplomats
do their job well. Diplomacy is a tool of first resort.
Defining diplomacy
Diplomacy = the art and practice of conducting negotiations between nations. The management of
relationships between countries.
- A long game that requires patience, persistence, flexibility and multiple adjustments.
Negotiations are important but make up a small part of the average diplomatic career.
Diplomacy has its limits. When an armed conflict breaks out, many leaders don’t listen to negotiations
anymore. But not all diplomacy stops as fighting continues, some mediations still work.
Who is a diplomat?
2 categories of diplomats:
1. Permanent diplomats: the diplomatic service of a country. Diplomacy requires knowledge acquired
through training, work experience and mentoring.
2. Transitory diplomats
a. Domestically based civil servants on occasional ‘excursion tours’ abroad
b. Representatives of agencies at headquarters (other than ministry of foreign affairs)
c. Noncareer appointees in senior roles: ministers, ambassadors
They are full-time employees.
honorary consul: private citizen with careers outside of official diplomatic channels, appointed for unpaid
and part-time work. (chapter 5)
1
,The sending government declares intelligence operatives to the receiving country. This usually works in
allied states, but many countries count spies. Which is why diplomats can be recalled for consultations.
A diplomatic assignment (= tour) lasts 3-4 years. Prevents diplomats to become too close to host-
countries.
- High-risk places: 1-2 years.
The bilateral diplomacy system
Every state has its own structures and mechanisms for foreign policy and diplomacy. There are many
similarities (based on Vienna Conventions), but also differences due to culture, history and political and
bureaucratic traditions/
Bilateral diplomacy = the management of relations between 2 nation-states.
The diplomatic headquarters
Executive branch = makes and executes foreign policy.
- Legislative & judicial branch have a role in foreign affairs.
Inter-agency = describes both a structure and mechanism through which policies are supposed to be
developed, debated and presented to the National Security Council.
- Policymaking structure that brings together agencies involved in foreign policy.
Minister of foreign affairs is considered a country’s chief diplomat. Heads of state and government often
engage in diplomacy as well -> mostly the head of state head of government.
Foreign ministries are organized by:
- Geographic region: Europe, Asia
- Functional issues: economic affairs, consular services
Diplomatic missions
Diplomatic missions = outposts of a country beyond its borders.
- Embassies, consulates, representative offices, permanent missions to international organizations
(UN, EU)
- Receiving states has to protect the premises of the mission against any intrusion or damage +
prevent disturbance of the peace of the mission: 1961 Vienna
Embassy = located in the chancery (building) in the host-country’s capital. (chapter 5)
- First-in-command: a head or chief of mission, called ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary.
He is the chief executive officer and the face of the sending state.
- Second-in-command: deputy head or deputy chief of mission (DCM). He is the chief operating
officer and oversees the management and functioning of the mission.
o If the post of head of the mission is vacant -> DCM or another official take the place.
- Divided into sections: political, economic, commercial, …
Consulate general = provides the full range of consular services, such as a ssisting citizens of its home
country, diplomatic relations, andling legal matters like issuing visas, passports, and notarization.
- Headed by a consul general.
- Located in a big city outside the capital. Sometimes is the consulate general bigger than the
embassy.
- Divided into sections: political, economic, commercial, …
Consulate = provides limited or no consular services.
- Located in a smaller city or province with more localized responsibilities.
2
,Representative offices & presence posts are smaller than consulates, with only one diplomat or just local
staff.
Local staff is very important, they have knowledge, insight, experience and connections. It consists of
support staff, economists, legal advisers, engineers, political analysts and financial specialists.
Multilateral missions = they function as embassies, but they do not have consular sections and they do not
manage bilateral relationships but manage relationships with international organizations.
1961 Vienna: a mission’s premise and the person of a diplomatic agent shall be inviolable. Premise can’t be
entered without consent and is immune from search, requisition, attachment or execution. The person is
not liable to arrest or detention, will be handled with respect and the host country will prevent any attacks.
The multilateral diplomacy system
Multilateral diplomacy = the management of relations among three or more nation-states, both within and
outside international organizations.
The United Nations (UN) is the largest global organization.
- 2 principal organs: UN Security Council (UNSC) + UN General Assembly (UNGA)
- Dozens of specialized agencies and programs: WHO, UNESCO, World Bank, …
- Headquarters in New York, with permanent seats in Geneva and Vienna
- 193 member-states
UNGA = the main deliberative, policymaking and representative organ. Decisions require a 2/3 majority.
UNSC = for the maintenance of international peace and security.
- 5/15 members are permanent and have a veto power: USA, UK, France, China, Russia
- 10/15 member are elected for 2-year terms.
UN Secretariat = the executive arm of the UN. It is headed by the secretary-general (elected by UNGA) for a
5-year renewable term.
Diplomats are from the same Foreign Service pools that staff bilateral missions.
Pro multilateral:
- Reduce the complexity of international relations (traveling, mail, solving crime).
- Agreements are more practical and cost less.
- Sets standard for collaboration among scientists, engineers, businesses, …
Contra multilateral: has added complexity compared with managing bilateral relations.
Regional international governmental organizations: EU, North Atlantic Treaty Organizations (NATO),
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).
Not all diplomats represent a country -> many serve on international staff of organizations.
Bilateral missions also use multilateral diplomacy: global threats are too complex and interconnected.
3
, Diplomatic duties and responsibilities
1961 Vianna Convention on Diplomatic Relations
Article 3
- The functions of a diplomatic mission consists in:
o Representing the sending state in the receiving state.
o Protecting in the receiving state the interests of the sending State and of its nationals,
within the limits permitted by international law.
o Negotiating with the government of the receiving state.
o Ascertaining by all lawful means conditions and developments in the receiving state and
reporting thereon to the government of the sending state.
o Promoting friendly relations between the sending state and the receiving state, and
developing their economic, cultural and scientific relations.
- Nothing in the present convention shall be construed as preventing the performance of consular
functions by a diplomatic mission.
It can be divided into 6 areas:
1. Representation: the mission is part of the country it represents.
o Visible: building and the flag in front of it.
o Ambassador is the face of the sending country 24/7.
2. Consular affairs: assisting citizens residing in or visiting the host country.
o Provide consular services: birth abroad, death certificates, visiting detained/ imprisoned
compatriots, adoptions, evacuations, …
o Major consular function: screening/ issuing visas to citizens who want to visit home-
country.
• First in line of defense when it comes to border security (ex. 9/11)
3. Relationship management: while the embassy’s front office deals with host-country’s political
leadership -> all sections are involved in some aspects of relationship.
o Modern technology only goes so far (email, video conferencing) -> by living and engaging in
host-country, diplomats gain insights in local society, culture, thinking and decision-making.
o Gives more influence in host-country and makes them better policy advisers in home-
country.
o A way to explain the home-country to the host-country
4. Reporting and analysis: a way to explain the host-country to your headquarters.
o Diplomats gather information overtly.
o Sometimes diplomats offer policy recommendations
5. Advocacy, influence and negotiation: advocate for home-country policies and actions
(implementors)
o They need to prevent the host from doing something against home interests.
o Influence: countries with international ambitions take opportunities to influence host-
country policies and actions.
6. Mission operations: the embassy needs to run well, good communication equipment, decent living
conditions, … The embassies need to take care of their people and keep them safe.
Expeditionary diplomacy
Expeditionary diplomacy = diplomatic service in conflict zones and other high-risk locations.
Not all diplomats live in luxuries, some serve in war zones, places with almost none electricity or clean
drinking water, with heavy pollution and diseases, …
Diplomats don’t sit at their desks, but sent people to inspect projects, talk to local mayors, take trips around
the province, …
4
Chapter 1: The Diplomatic Landscape
National interest and international relations
Diplomat = an impartial person authorized to negotiate on behalf of a state, for the peaceful conduct of
international relations.
Diplomacy is managed by the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (Treaty 1) and
supplemented by the 1963 Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (Treaty 2).
Diplomacy serves the national interest.
National security and foreign policy
National security = the provision, protection and defense of the security of a country and its people.
- Domestic and foreign policy instruments
Foreign policy = a set of policies aimed at countering external threats, furthering interests and taking
advantage of opportunities.
- Instruments: diplomacy, development, science and technology.
- Country = sovereignty and territorial integrity.
Economic security is important, because the lack of it is a potential cause of instability and conflict.
Armies are the pillar of a country’s security, but a problem/ crisis would be resolved long before if diplomats
do their job well. Diplomacy is a tool of first resort.
Defining diplomacy
Diplomacy = the art and practice of conducting negotiations between nations. The management of
relationships between countries.
- A long game that requires patience, persistence, flexibility and multiple adjustments.
Negotiations are important but make up a small part of the average diplomatic career.
Diplomacy has its limits. When an armed conflict breaks out, many leaders don’t listen to negotiations
anymore. But not all diplomacy stops as fighting continues, some mediations still work.
Who is a diplomat?
2 categories of diplomats:
1. Permanent diplomats: the diplomatic service of a country. Diplomacy requires knowledge acquired
through training, work experience and mentoring.
2. Transitory diplomats
a. Domestically based civil servants on occasional ‘excursion tours’ abroad
b. Representatives of agencies at headquarters (other than ministry of foreign affairs)
c. Noncareer appointees in senior roles: ministers, ambassadors
They are full-time employees.
honorary consul: private citizen with careers outside of official diplomatic channels, appointed for unpaid
and part-time work. (chapter 5)
1
,The sending government declares intelligence operatives to the receiving country. This usually works in
allied states, but many countries count spies. Which is why diplomats can be recalled for consultations.
A diplomatic assignment (= tour) lasts 3-4 years. Prevents diplomats to become too close to host-
countries.
- High-risk places: 1-2 years.
The bilateral diplomacy system
Every state has its own structures and mechanisms for foreign policy and diplomacy. There are many
similarities (based on Vienna Conventions), but also differences due to culture, history and political and
bureaucratic traditions/
Bilateral diplomacy = the management of relations between 2 nation-states.
The diplomatic headquarters
Executive branch = makes and executes foreign policy.
- Legislative & judicial branch have a role in foreign affairs.
Inter-agency = describes both a structure and mechanism through which policies are supposed to be
developed, debated and presented to the National Security Council.
- Policymaking structure that brings together agencies involved in foreign policy.
Minister of foreign affairs is considered a country’s chief diplomat. Heads of state and government often
engage in diplomacy as well -> mostly the head of state head of government.
Foreign ministries are organized by:
- Geographic region: Europe, Asia
- Functional issues: economic affairs, consular services
Diplomatic missions
Diplomatic missions = outposts of a country beyond its borders.
- Embassies, consulates, representative offices, permanent missions to international organizations
(UN, EU)
- Receiving states has to protect the premises of the mission against any intrusion or damage +
prevent disturbance of the peace of the mission: 1961 Vienna
Embassy = located in the chancery (building) in the host-country’s capital. (chapter 5)
- First-in-command: a head or chief of mission, called ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary.
He is the chief executive officer and the face of the sending state.
- Second-in-command: deputy head or deputy chief of mission (DCM). He is the chief operating
officer and oversees the management and functioning of the mission.
o If the post of head of the mission is vacant -> DCM or another official take the place.
- Divided into sections: political, economic, commercial, …
Consulate general = provides the full range of consular services, such as a ssisting citizens of its home
country, diplomatic relations, andling legal matters like issuing visas, passports, and notarization.
- Headed by a consul general.
- Located in a big city outside the capital. Sometimes is the consulate general bigger than the
embassy.
- Divided into sections: political, economic, commercial, …
Consulate = provides limited or no consular services.
- Located in a smaller city or province with more localized responsibilities.
2
,Representative offices & presence posts are smaller than consulates, with only one diplomat or just local
staff.
Local staff is very important, they have knowledge, insight, experience and connections. It consists of
support staff, economists, legal advisers, engineers, political analysts and financial specialists.
Multilateral missions = they function as embassies, but they do not have consular sections and they do not
manage bilateral relationships but manage relationships with international organizations.
1961 Vienna: a mission’s premise and the person of a diplomatic agent shall be inviolable. Premise can’t be
entered without consent and is immune from search, requisition, attachment or execution. The person is
not liable to arrest or detention, will be handled with respect and the host country will prevent any attacks.
The multilateral diplomacy system
Multilateral diplomacy = the management of relations among three or more nation-states, both within and
outside international organizations.
The United Nations (UN) is the largest global organization.
- 2 principal organs: UN Security Council (UNSC) + UN General Assembly (UNGA)
- Dozens of specialized agencies and programs: WHO, UNESCO, World Bank, …
- Headquarters in New York, with permanent seats in Geneva and Vienna
- 193 member-states
UNGA = the main deliberative, policymaking and representative organ. Decisions require a 2/3 majority.
UNSC = for the maintenance of international peace and security.
- 5/15 members are permanent and have a veto power: USA, UK, France, China, Russia
- 10/15 member are elected for 2-year terms.
UN Secretariat = the executive arm of the UN. It is headed by the secretary-general (elected by UNGA) for a
5-year renewable term.
Diplomats are from the same Foreign Service pools that staff bilateral missions.
Pro multilateral:
- Reduce the complexity of international relations (traveling, mail, solving crime).
- Agreements are more practical and cost less.
- Sets standard for collaboration among scientists, engineers, businesses, …
Contra multilateral: has added complexity compared with managing bilateral relations.
Regional international governmental organizations: EU, North Atlantic Treaty Organizations (NATO),
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).
Not all diplomats represent a country -> many serve on international staff of organizations.
Bilateral missions also use multilateral diplomacy: global threats are too complex and interconnected.
3
, Diplomatic duties and responsibilities
1961 Vianna Convention on Diplomatic Relations
Article 3
- The functions of a diplomatic mission consists in:
o Representing the sending state in the receiving state.
o Protecting in the receiving state the interests of the sending State and of its nationals,
within the limits permitted by international law.
o Negotiating with the government of the receiving state.
o Ascertaining by all lawful means conditions and developments in the receiving state and
reporting thereon to the government of the sending state.
o Promoting friendly relations between the sending state and the receiving state, and
developing their economic, cultural and scientific relations.
- Nothing in the present convention shall be construed as preventing the performance of consular
functions by a diplomatic mission.
It can be divided into 6 areas:
1. Representation: the mission is part of the country it represents.
o Visible: building and the flag in front of it.
o Ambassador is the face of the sending country 24/7.
2. Consular affairs: assisting citizens residing in or visiting the host country.
o Provide consular services: birth abroad, death certificates, visiting detained/ imprisoned
compatriots, adoptions, evacuations, …
o Major consular function: screening/ issuing visas to citizens who want to visit home-
country.
• First in line of defense when it comes to border security (ex. 9/11)
3. Relationship management: while the embassy’s front office deals with host-country’s political
leadership -> all sections are involved in some aspects of relationship.
o Modern technology only goes so far (email, video conferencing) -> by living and engaging in
host-country, diplomats gain insights in local society, culture, thinking and decision-making.
o Gives more influence in host-country and makes them better policy advisers in home-
country.
o A way to explain the home-country to the host-country
4. Reporting and analysis: a way to explain the host-country to your headquarters.
o Diplomats gather information overtly.
o Sometimes diplomats offer policy recommendations
5. Advocacy, influence and negotiation: advocate for home-country policies and actions
(implementors)
o They need to prevent the host from doing something against home interests.
o Influence: countries with international ambitions take opportunities to influence host-
country policies and actions.
6. Mission operations: the embassy needs to run well, good communication equipment, decent living
conditions, … The embassies need to take care of their people and keep them safe.
Expeditionary diplomacy
Expeditionary diplomacy = diplomatic service in conflict zones and other high-risk locations.
Not all diplomats live in luxuries, some serve in war zones, places with almost none electricity or clean
drinking water, with heavy pollution and diseases, …
Diplomats don’t sit at their desks, but sent people to inspect projects, talk to local mayors, take trips around
the province, …
4
