Question 1
1. Briefly discuss the key ingredients of employment relations dynamics and employee
involvement and participation.
1.1. Introduction
Employment relations have evolved considerably over time, moving from a traditional tripartite
model to a broader and more complex multipartite perspective. The tripartite model, grounded in
Dunlop’s framework, originally identified three core actors: employers, employees (represented by
trade unions), and the State (Nel & Kirsten, 2025:36). However, in the modern employment
landscape—particularly in South Africa—this perspective has proven too narrow. Complex
employment arrangements, the rise of non-standard employment, informal work, and the increasing
influence of external and community-based stakeholders have led scholars to advocate for a
multipartite perspective (Nel & Kirsten, 2025:36–37). This new approach includes a variety of actors,
such as customers, suppliers, communities, NGOs, labour brokers, HR consultants, and even the
media and academia, all of whom interact with and shape employment relations systems in various
ways. The African context, with its emphasis on Ubuntu and relational ethics, also supports this
expanded view by encouraging organisations to honour and engage a broader community of
“relationholders” rather than merely “stakeholders” (Nel & Kirsten, 2025:41). Therefore, modern
employment relations require a flexible, open-minded, and inclusive analysis that recognises the
fluidity and multiplicity of actors and interests.
1.2. Role-Players and Stakeholders in Employment Relations
Traditionally, the primary role-players in employment relations are employers, employees, and the
State. However, these parties are not homogenous or static entities. Employers can include owners,
managers, employer associations, and boards of directors, each with distinct interests and functions
(Nel & Kirsten, 2025:37). Employees are similarly diverse, encompassing full-time workers,
part-time staff, unionised and non-unionised employees, precarious workers, and even internal
representatives such as shop stewards. Trade unions have historically been central to representing
employees’ interests, yet the rise of atypical employment has made union representation more
difficult and led to the emergence of alternative actors such as labour lawyers, HR consultants, and
grassroots organisations (Nel & Kirsten, 2025:38–39). The State, in turn, comprises various
governmental agencies and institutions like the Department of Employment and Labour and the
Labour Court, and also acts as an employer, further complicating its role (Nel & Kirsten, 2025:38).
In the South African context, communities, family members, and traditional leaders also play vital
roles in employment relations by influencing workplace culture, employee conduct, and dispute
resolution (Nel & Kirsten, 2025:39). This perspective aligns with African communal values and
supports a shift from a Eurocentric to an Afrocentric understanding of employment relations. New
actors such as NGOs, global union federations, health advisors, and even media platforms are
increasingly significant in shaping narratives, mobilising public opinion, and representing
marginalised voices (Nel & Kirsten, 2025:40–41). Academics and professional bodies such as the
Industrial Relations Association of South Africa (IRASA) and the South African Board for People
Practices (SABPP) contribute by influencing policy, education, and debate within the field.
Consequently, the South African employment relations system reflects a deeply interconnected and