1. PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY
A – States of matter:
1.1 – understand the three states of matter in terms of arrangement, movement and energy of particles
o The three states of matter are solids, liquids and gases
o Particles are represented as small solid spheres
o Solid – least energy, regular arrangement, very close
together, particles vibrate in fixed position
o Liquid – more energy than solids but less than gases, particles
are close together but random arrangement
o Gas – most energy, very spread out, move quickly in all directions
1.2 – understand the interconversions between the three states of matter in terms of: the names of
interconversions, how they are achieved and the changes in arrangement, movement and energy of
particles
o Interconversion of state – when matter changes from one state to another by changes in temperature or
pressure.
o Changes of state are physical changes.
o Melting – solid to liquid - occurs at the melting point which is unique to each pure substance
o Boiling – liquid to gas - occurs at the boiling point which is unique to each pure substance
o Freezing – liquid to solid- reverse of melting and occurs at exactly the same temperature as melting
o Condensation – gas to liquid
o Sublimation – solid to gas
o Deposition – gas to solid
o From solid to liquid to gas: particles gain more kinetic energy, move around more and become further apart
o From gas to liquid to solid: particles lose kinetic energy, move less and become closer together
1.3 – understand how the results of experiments involving the dilution of colours solutions and diffusion of
gases can be explained
o Movement of particles from an area of high concentration to low concentration
o Diffusion does not work in solids, since particles only vibrate, but diffusion requires particles to move
o Coloured liquids are diluted when put with water, because the colour particles diffuse to the area of low
concentration
1.4 – know the meanings of: solvent, solute, solution and saturated solution
o Solvent – a liquid that has the ability to dissolve other solutes (e.g. water)
o Solute – the substance that dissolves to make a solution (e.g. salt in salt solution)
o Solution – a mixture made up of 2 or more substances (e.g. salt water)
o Saturated solution – a solution in which the maximum amount of solvent has been dissolved. Any more solute
added will sit as crystals at the bottom.
Extras:
o Soluble – able to dissolve in a solvent (e.g. sugar is soluble in water)
o Insoluble – not able to dissolve in a solvent (e.g. sand isn’t soluble in water)
o Suspension – 2 or more substances mixed, where the solute doesn’t dissolve, but is suspended in the mixture
1.5 – know what is meant by the term solubility in the units g per 100g of solvent
o Solubility is a measurement of how much of a substance will dissolve in a given volume of a liquid
o Solubility is shows as the grams of a solute that will dissolve in 100g of wate
, 1. PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY
1.6 – understand how to plot and interpret solubility curves
o Solubility of solids is affected by temperature: as temperature increases, solids usually become more soluble
o Solubility of gases is affected by temperature and pressure; in general: as pressure increases, gases become more
soluble and as temperature increases, gases become less soluble
o X-axis = temperature
o Y-axis = solubility
1.7 – practical: investigate the solubility of a solid in water at a specific temperature
B – Elements, compounds and mixtures:
1.8 – understand how to classify a substance as an element, compound or mixture
o Element – substance made from only one type of atom
o Compound – substance made from two or more elements that have reacted chemically with each other
o Mixture – substance made from two or more elements not chemically combine together
1.9 – understand that a pure substance has a fixed melting and boiling point, but that a mixture may melt or
boil over a range of temperatures
o Pure substance – a single element or compound, not mixed with any other substance
o They melt and boil at specific temperatures
o These melting and boiling points can be used to distinguish pure substances from mixtures
1.10 – describe these experimental techniques for the separation of mixtures: simple distillation, fractional
distillation, filtration, crystallisation and paper chromatography
Antibumping
Simple distillation: granules are
added to
o Used to separate a pure liquid from a mixture of liquids
prevent large
o Works when liquids have different boiling points
bubbles forming
o E.g. water from a solution of salt water
Fractional distillation:
o Used to separate two or more liquids that are miscible (mixable) with one another
o It is similar to simple distillation but uses a fractionating column
o E.g. ethanol from a mixture of ethanol and water
Filtration:
o Used to separate an undissolved solid from a mixture of the
solid and a liquid (a solution)
o Filter paper only allows small liquid particles to pass
through (water)
o Solid particles (sand) = too large to pass stay behind as
residue
o E.g. sand from a mixture of sand and water
Crystallisation:
o Used to separate a solid dissolved in a solvent from a solution
o The solution is heated, allowing the solvent to evaporate, leaving a
saturated solution behind if saturated, crystals will form E.g.
copper sulphate crystals
, 1. PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY
Chromatography:
o Used to separate substances that have different solubilities in
a given solvent
o Used to identify the purity of a substance
o Capillary action – water moves up, so the ink does too
different substances have different solubilities so will travel at
different rates, causing the substances to spread apart
o Those substances with higher solubility will travel further
than the others
Extras:
Evaporation:
o Used to separate a solid dissolved in a solvent from a
solution
o Solution is heated until all solvent evaporates and a
solid
remains
o E.g. sugar from a solution of sugar and water
Separating funnel:
o Used to separate 2 liquids that don’t mix (are immiscible)
o Works with liquids that have different densities
o E.g. oil and water, petrol from water and petrol
1.11 – understand how a chromatogram provides information about the composition of a mixture
o Chromatogram – the piece of paper you get the results on
o Impure substance will show up with more than one spot
o A pure substance should only show up with one spot
o Blue, red and yellow are pure substances
o If two or more substances are the same, they will produce identical
chromatograms
o If the substance is a mixture, it will separate on the paper to show all
the different components as separate spots
o The line is done in pencil because if done in pen the line will dissolve in the solute
1.12 – understand how to use the calculation of Rf values to identify the components of a mixture
o Rf stands for retention factor
distance substance travelled
o Formula =
distance solvent travelled
o Use a ruler to measure and usually round to one decimal place
o Different compounds have different Rf values in different solvents used to identify the compounds
o The bigger the Rf value, the more soluble the substance is, meaning it adheres (sticks to) the paper less
1.13 – practical: investigate paper chromatography using inks/food colourings
C – Atomic structure:
A – States of matter:
1.1 – understand the three states of matter in terms of arrangement, movement and energy of particles
o The three states of matter are solids, liquids and gases
o Particles are represented as small solid spheres
o Solid – least energy, regular arrangement, very close
together, particles vibrate in fixed position
o Liquid – more energy than solids but less than gases, particles
are close together but random arrangement
o Gas – most energy, very spread out, move quickly in all directions
1.2 – understand the interconversions between the three states of matter in terms of: the names of
interconversions, how they are achieved and the changes in arrangement, movement and energy of
particles
o Interconversion of state – when matter changes from one state to another by changes in temperature or
pressure.
o Changes of state are physical changes.
o Melting – solid to liquid - occurs at the melting point which is unique to each pure substance
o Boiling – liquid to gas - occurs at the boiling point which is unique to each pure substance
o Freezing – liquid to solid- reverse of melting and occurs at exactly the same temperature as melting
o Condensation – gas to liquid
o Sublimation – solid to gas
o Deposition – gas to solid
o From solid to liquid to gas: particles gain more kinetic energy, move around more and become further apart
o From gas to liquid to solid: particles lose kinetic energy, move less and become closer together
1.3 – understand how the results of experiments involving the dilution of colours solutions and diffusion of
gases can be explained
o Movement of particles from an area of high concentration to low concentration
o Diffusion does not work in solids, since particles only vibrate, but diffusion requires particles to move
o Coloured liquids are diluted when put with water, because the colour particles diffuse to the area of low
concentration
1.4 – know the meanings of: solvent, solute, solution and saturated solution
o Solvent – a liquid that has the ability to dissolve other solutes (e.g. water)
o Solute – the substance that dissolves to make a solution (e.g. salt in salt solution)
o Solution – a mixture made up of 2 or more substances (e.g. salt water)
o Saturated solution – a solution in which the maximum amount of solvent has been dissolved. Any more solute
added will sit as crystals at the bottom.
Extras:
o Soluble – able to dissolve in a solvent (e.g. sugar is soluble in water)
o Insoluble – not able to dissolve in a solvent (e.g. sand isn’t soluble in water)
o Suspension – 2 or more substances mixed, where the solute doesn’t dissolve, but is suspended in the mixture
1.5 – know what is meant by the term solubility in the units g per 100g of solvent
o Solubility is a measurement of how much of a substance will dissolve in a given volume of a liquid
o Solubility is shows as the grams of a solute that will dissolve in 100g of wate
, 1. PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY
1.6 – understand how to plot and interpret solubility curves
o Solubility of solids is affected by temperature: as temperature increases, solids usually become more soluble
o Solubility of gases is affected by temperature and pressure; in general: as pressure increases, gases become more
soluble and as temperature increases, gases become less soluble
o X-axis = temperature
o Y-axis = solubility
1.7 – practical: investigate the solubility of a solid in water at a specific temperature
B – Elements, compounds and mixtures:
1.8 – understand how to classify a substance as an element, compound or mixture
o Element – substance made from only one type of atom
o Compound – substance made from two or more elements that have reacted chemically with each other
o Mixture – substance made from two or more elements not chemically combine together
1.9 – understand that a pure substance has a fixed melting and boiling point, but that a mixture may melt or
boil over a range of temperatures
o Pure substance – a single element or compound, not mixed with any other substance
o They melt and boil at specific temperatures
o These melting and boiling points can be used to distinguish pure substances from mixtures
1.10 – describe these experimental techniques for the separation of mixtures: simple distillation, fractional
distillation, filtration, crystallisation and paper chromatography
Antibumping
Simple distillation: granules are
added to
o Used to separate a pure liquid from a mixture of liquids
prevent large
o Works when liquids have different boiling points
bubbles forming
o E.g. water from a solution of salt water
Fractional distillation:
o Used to separate two or more liquids that are miscible (mixable) with one another
o It is similar to simple distillation but uses a fractionating column
o E.g. ethanol from a mixture of ethanol and water
Filtration:
o Used to separate an undissolved solid from a mixture of the
solid and a liquid (a solution)
o Filter paper only allows small liquid particles to pass
through (water)
o Solid particles (sand) = too large to pass stay behind as
residue
o E.g. sand from a mixture of sand and water
Crystallisation:
o Used to separate a solid dissolved in a solvent from a solution
o The solution is heated, allowing the solvent to evaporate, leaving a
saturated solution behind if saturated, crystals will form E.g.
copper sulphate crystals
, 1. PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY
Chromatography:
o Used to separate substances that have different solubilities in
a given solvent
o Used to identify the purity of a substance
o Capillary action – water moves up, so the ink does too
different substances have different solubilities so will travel at
different rates, causing the substances to spread apart
o Those substances with higher solubility will travel further
than the others
Extras:
Evaporation:
o Used to separate a solid dissolved in a solvent from a
solution
o Solution is heated until all solvent evaporates and a
solid
remains
o E.g. sugar from a solution of sugar and water
Separating funnel:
o Used to separate 2 liquids that don’t mix (are immiscible)
o Works with liquids that have different densities
o E.g. oil and water, petrol from water and petrol
1.11 – understand how a chromatogram provides information about the composition of a mixture
o Chromatogram – the piece of paper you get the results on
o Impure substance will show up with more than one spot
o A pure substance should only show up with one spot
o Blue, red and yellow are pure substances
o If two or more substances are the same, they will produce identical
chromatograms
o If the substance is a mixture, it will separate on the paper to show all
the different components as separate spots
o The line is done in pencil because if done in pen the line will dissolve in the solute
1.12 – understand how to use the calculation of Rf values to identify the components of a mixture
o Rf stands for retention factor
distance substance travelled
o Formula =
distance solvent travelled
o Use a ruler to measure and usually round to one decimal place
o Different compounds have different Rf values in different solvents used to identify the compounds
o The bigger the Rf value, the more soluble the substance is, meaning it adheres (sticks to) the paper less
1.13 – practical: investigate paper chromatography using inks/food colourings
C – Atomic structure:
