3_3_forensic_psychology_20250331101224
Question Answer
What is forensic psychology? It engages with settings, purposes and issues centered on criminal and civil justice. It includes the behavior, usually harmful to others, which triggers the operation of the agencies which then involved.
What are the 4 core roles of a forensic psychologist? Conduct ing psyc hological applications and interventions
Research
Communicat ing psyc hological knowledge and advise to other professionals
Training other professionals in psyc hological s kills and knowledge
What is the main focus of forensic psychology? Clinical psychology applied to a forensic context
What are the key questions in forensic psychology? Who commit s crime and why?
How do we ass ess t he risk of criminal behavior and recidivism?
What c an we do to minimize that risk?
What does 'fitness to plead' mean? A defendant must understand court proceedings and aid in their defense
What can impair a defendant's fitness to plead? Lack of medication, addiction, trauma, or mental disorder
What is 'Actus Reus' in legal terms? The criminal act or lack of an act
What does 'Mens Rea' refer to? The intent or willingness to commit a crime
What is the M'Naughten test of insanity? A test to establish if a defendant was insane at the time of the crime
What are the disposals for insanity cases? Hospital order, supervision order, absolute discharge
What is the definition of automatism in legal terms? Lack of intent or involuntary action beyond the individual's control
What does conducting psychological applications and interventions involve? Identifying, assessing, and addressing issues through a cycle of formulation, planning, implementation, and evaluation
What is involved in the research role of forensic psychologists? Designing, conducting, analyzing, and evaluating applied, field-based research projects
What is essential when communicating psychological knowledge to other professionals? Sensitive and appropriate interpersonal engagement with their perspectives
What does training other professionals in psychological skills involve? Analyzing suboptimal job performance and investigating various factors affecting it
What is the importance of flexibility in forensic psychology practice? It allows responsiveness without compromising standards
Question Answer
How do personal capabilities and predispositions influence a person? They affect how the environment influences the shaping of behavior and, reciprocally, how the behavior can modify biological tendencies.
Describe two general trajectories of criminality in youth The first t rajec tory is t he **adolescent -limited***,* which represents the majority of yout hs who will engage in delinquent act ivit ies at some point during adolesc ence but desist in early adulthood.
The second traject ory is called the **life-course-persistent.** These are t he offenders , mostly males , who start behaving antisoc ially early and continue through t o adult hood, often escalating in the
seriousness of their ac ts.
What is heredity? Heredity is the transmission of genetic information from one generation to the next.
Is there evidence of intergenerational criminality? There is a high correlation between the fathers criminality and the sons criminality. This applies equally to boys and girls.
What is also of influence in the transmission of crime from parent to child? Other factors such as parental monitoring and disciplining practices, having a father with a poor work record, and living in poor housing are also important. Official police and court processing may also be of influence.
How can 'assertive mating' explain the transmission of crime from parent to child? 83% of boys grew up and married women who also had criminal records.
Family criminalit y was the best predictor of anti-social behavior for any family member.
When the mother was arrest ed,t he chanc e of the father having been arrest ed was five times more likely.
What does a higher concordance rate in monozygotic (MZ) twins compared to dizygotic (DZ) twins suggest? It suggests that heredity has a stronger influence on the trait being studied.
What were the concordance rates for criminality found by Lange (1929), and Christiansen (1970), and Dalgaard for MZ a Lange (1929): MZ t wins: 77% c oncordance & DZ twins: 12% concordanc e
Christians en (1970): 35% for M Z twins , 12% for DZ t wins.
Dalgaard: 26% for M Z twins .
What is the equal environments assumption in twin studies? The assumption that identical twins (MZ) and fraternal twins (DZ) experience similar environments, so differences in concordance rates are primarily due to genetics.
What did Grove et al. (1990) find about MZ twins raised apart and antisocial personality disorder? They found a 29% concordance rate for antisocial personality disorder, consistent with other twin studies on crime.
What is the discordant MZ-twin method, and what does it aim to uncover? It assumes MZ twins raised together do not share exactly the same environments. This method helps identify potential specific environmental causes, holding genetics constant.
In Caspi et al. (2004), what did researchers conclude about the role of maternal treatment in child aggression? Negative maternal emotions strongly predicted child aggression, suggesting that maternal treatment, not genetics, explained child aggressiveness.
What factors are analyzed in adoption studies on criminal behavior? Adoption s tudies analyze:
(a) The criminal history of biological parents .
(b) The c riminal history of adopt ive parents.
(c) Combinat ions of c riminalit y in biologic al and adoptive parent s.
What did a study of over 14,000 adoptees in Denmark (1924-1947) reveal about genetic influences on criminality? Adoptees wit h criminal biologic al parent s raised by noncriminal adopt ive parents had a convict ion rate of 20%, compared to 13.5% for those with nonc riminal biologic al and adoptive parent s.
This suggest s a modest genetic influenc e on criminal behavior (effect size: 0.03) .
How does heritability of behavioral issues vary with severity? Severe behavioral problems (e.g., major depress ion, antisocial behavior) have a stronger genetic component.
Life-course-persistent offenders show herit ability of up to 70%, c ompared t o 35% for adolesc ence-limited offenders.
What differences in heritability were observed between genders in severe antisocial behavior? Females with life-course-persistent offending showed stronger genetic influences compared to males.
What did Harden et al. (2008) and Armour and Haynie (2007) find about early sexual activity and delinquency? Cont rary to prior research, Harden et al. found that early sexual activit y was as soc iated wit h lower delinquenc y, highlighting the c omplexity of the relat ionship.
Armour and Haynie (2007) not ed that early sexual debut inc reas ed the risk of delinquency by 20%, though causation remains unclear.
What are the 2 levels in which the nature-nurture interaction can proceed? There is the **molec ular genet ic ** level
There is a higher level of t he **behavioral markers** repres enting the biologic al sys tems that underlie criminal conduc t.
What does the MAOA gene do? School at tachment and repeating a grade, bot h risk fact ors for delinquency, interact with the MAOA gene.
The MAOA gene is widely regarded to influenc e aggression via serotonin and dopamine neurot ransmission.
Give 5 biological markers indicative of biological system processes that may interact with environmental factors: - Sensation seeking
- High energy
- Low self-c ont rol
- Emotionality
- Callousness
What did Lombroso conclude about criminals after observing a convict’s brain? 1. Criminals biologically resemble lower-order animals.
2. They behave like animals wit h few inhibit ions, as “biologic al throwbacks” t o an earlier evolut ionary s tage.
3. Some criminals are “born bad.”
What is the limbic system, and why is it called the “old brain”? The limbic system is a brain circuit controlling basic emotions and motivations. It is called the “old brain” because it developed early in evolution and is similar to structures in lower-level animals.
What did Charles Goring’s (1913) and Hooten (1939) study reveal about the physical differences between convicts and nGoring found no significant physical differences bet ween 3,000 Englis h c onvic ts and groups of university student s, hospital patient s, and soldiers.
Hooten found differences in 19 of 33 physical c harac teristics, with criminals having low foreheads, protruding ears, and being generally physically inferior.
What is plasticity, and how does it affect the brain? Plasticity is the brain’s ability to adapt, with neurons assuming the functions of damaged areas. The brain is more plastic during youth than adulthood.
What are William Sheldon’s three body types, and how do they relate to delinquency? 1. Ectomorph: Thin and fragile.
2. Endomorph: Overweight and round.
3. Mesomorph: Muscular and athlet ic .
The Gluecks ( 1950) f ound t hat delinquent s were more likely to be mes omorphs.
How do the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex interact in violent behavior? Violent behavior depends on processes in both the limbic system (emot ions and mot ivations) and the prefront al cort ex (impulse cont rol and executive functioning).
The limbic syst em ( and amygdala) ac t as the gas pedal and t he pfc act s as t he brakes. If one doesn’t funct ion as t hey should, t hings van go wrong
What racial differences did Rushton and Jensen propose regarding intelligence and behavior? They argued t hat :
1. Asians are the mos t advanced in intelligence, temperament, and social organization.
2. Caucasians are intermediat e.
3. Blac ks are the least advanced.
Note: This theory is highly c ontroversial and criticized for it s lack of s cientific validity and its racial bias
What is the role of the frontal lobes in behavior? The frontal lobes are responsible for attention, planning, impulse control, and executive functioning. Development continues until around age 25, influencing the “age-crime curve.”
What is the “cad” strategy in evolutionary criminology? The “cad” strategy refers to men using deceitful or aggressive tactics to reproduce while avoiding paternal responsibilities, in contrast to “dads” who commit to monogamy and child-rearing.
How are frontal lobes different in white-collar criminals compared to other criminals? White-collar criminals tend to have greater gray matter thickness in their frontal lobes compared to average criminals.
What are the two main types of life-course-persistent offenders? 1. Moffitt’s neurops ychological t ype: Individuals wit h neuropsychological problems, diffic ult t emperament s, and poor socialization experiences.
2. Psyc hopat hs: Individuals pursuing a s trategic “life his tory” to maximize mating s uc cess wit hout significant neuropsychologic al defic it s.
What are the traits of a difficult temperament in a child? 1. Intens e react ions to stimuli.
2. Generally negative mood.
3. Slowness to adapt to change.
4. Irregularit y in sleep, hunger, and ot her bodily func tions.
What is passive avoidance learning, and how does it teach self-control? Passive avoidance learning t eaches self- cont rol t hrough fear reduction:
1. Antisocial behavior is punished, producing fear.
2. Fear discourages t he behavior, and its reduct ion reinforces inhibition.
What is the “age-crime curve”, and how is it linked to brain development? The age-crime curve shows that antisocial behaviors peak in late adolescence and decline in early adulthood. This pattern is linked to delayed development of the frontal lobes.
How do criminals differ from noncriminals in reproductive behavior? Criminals tend t o:
- Begin sexual act ivit y earlier.
- Have children earlier.
- Have more sexual partners .
What did the Dunedin Study reveal about neuropsychological tests and delinquency? Poor neuropsychologic al test perf ormance, es pecially in verbal abilit ies, predic ted delinquency at age 18.
This was most s trongly ass oc iated wit h life- course-persistent male delinquent s but not with adolesc ent -limited delinquents .
What is the outcome of criminals mating with partners with similar temperaments and social backgrounds? They experience higher levels of failed intimate partnerships, poorer health, and higher mortality rates.
What does Moffitt’s biosocial model suggest about chronic criminality? Chronic criminalit y arises from a c ombination of:
- Biological fac tors: Neuropsychologic al defic it s (poor verbal skills, impulsiveness) .
- Ps ychosocial factors : Negative environment s that amplify these biologic al risks.
Do biological factors directly cause crime? No, biological factors do not directly cause crime but can increase the likelihood of antisocial behavior, especially in adverse environmental conditions.
How do neuropsychological deficits contribute to life-course-persistent offending? Deficits like poor verbal skills, impulsiveness, and attention issues increase the likelihood of persistent offending, especially when combined with adverse social environments.
What are the four main areas where neurobiology plays a role in criminology? 1. Underst anding criminal behavior.
2. Early detection, prediction, and intervent ion in deviant behavior.
3. Criminal proceedings: ass ess ing responsibility and informing s entencing.
4. Forensic rehabilitation and treat ment.
Why is the maturity gap important in understanding adolescent behavior? The maturity gap occurs because adolescents desire adult status but lack full neurophysiological maturity, contributing to impulsive and antisocial behaviors.
What percentage of variance in criminal behavior is attributed to genetic influences? About 40–60% of the variance in criminal behavior is attributed to genetic influences.
How do biological predispositions and environmental factors interact? Biological predispositions influence how individuals react to the environment, while environmental factors can affect gene expression, hormone and neurotransmitter levels, and brain structure and functioning.
What does neurobiological research aim to achieve in criminology? 1. Underst and the neurobiological c harac teristics of ant isocial behavior.
2. Predic t ant isocial behavior using neurobiological risk factors.
3. Study interactions between neurobiological, psychologic al, and environmental f act ors.
What is temperament, and how is it related to personality? Temperament refers to inherent and stable tendencies to respond to the environment. It is the biological precursor to personality and explains the heritability of personality.
What ethical concerns arise with neurobiological approaches to predicting and intervening in deviant behavior? 1. Stigmatization of individuals labeled as “at -risk.”
2. Risk of fals e posit ives leading to unnecessary interventions.
3. Negative impacts on self- est eem and treat ment outcomes.
4. Quest ions about decis ion-making aut onomy for c hildren labeled as at-risk.
What are the two interrelated temperamental traits linked to delinquency and life-course-persistent offenders? 1. High stimulation-seeking combined with low self- cont rol.
2. Negative emotionality, which includes f acet s like aggres sion, alienation, and st ress react ions.
What is “neuro-determinism,” and why is it a concern? “Neuro-determinism” is the belief that biological factors alone drive behavior. It risks fostering false assumptions, stigmatization, and reliance on “quick fixes” while overlooking psychological and socio-economic factors.
What is a “poorness of fit,” and how does it contribute to behavioral problems? A poorness of fit occurs when a child’s difficult temperament mismatches with caregivers’ or teachers’ approaches, leading to exacerbated behavioral problems.
How does neurophysiological underarousal contribute to sensation-seeking and criminal behavior? Individuals with low baseline arousal may seek stimulation to “wake up” their systems, predisposing them to risky and criminal behaviors, especially when combined with low self-control.
What are the risks of over-reliance on neurobiological evidence in court? 1. Fost ering “neuro- determinism.”
2. Overest imating its acc uracy in proving reduced responsibility or dangerousness.
3. Misint erpretation leading t o biased sent enc ing out comes.
How can forensic mental health interventions benefit from neurobiological insights? 1. Acc urate diagnostics c an guide treatment to reduc e recidivism.
2. Non-invasive neuro-intervent ions (e.g., neurofeedback, transc ranial magnet ic stimulation) s how promise.
3. Combining biological and ps ychological approac hes ensures balanc ed rehabilit at ion.
Why do individuals with antisocial personalities struggle with learning self-control? They often exhibit reduced fear responses and slower dissipation of physiological fear markers, impairing their ability to learn from punishment.
What risks are associated with emphasizing biological determinism in offender treatment? 1. Increased st igma and harmful stereotypes.
2. Lower pat ient motivation for recovery.
3. Viewing disorders as untreatable or permanent, which can hinder out comes.
How do sensation-seeking tendencies differ between offenders and non-offenders? Offenders tend to score higher on sensation-seeking measures and often report feeling a “rush” from engaging in criminal acts.
What is the neurophysiological arousal hypothesis in relation to crime? It suggests that some offenders engage in criminal acts for the sensation-seeking thrill, due to their underactive neurophysiological systems.
What is antisocial behavior (AB), and why is it significant? Antisocial behavior includes aggression, violence, and rule-breaking, with significant financial, social, and emotional costs to society, perpetrators, victims, and their families.
What is callous-unemotional (CU)? Callous-unemotional traits (CU) are distinguished by a persistent pattern of behavior that reflects a disregard for others, and also a lack of empathy and generally deficient affect.
How does heterogeneity manifest in youth with antisocial behavior? Youth with AB differ in onset, duration, and severity of behavior. Subtypes inc lude:
1. Early-onset AB (greater genet ic risk) .
2. Adolescent-onset AB (less severe traject ory) .
3. AB with callous-unemotional ( CU) t raits, linked to higher levels of AB.
How does the heritability of aggression differ from rule-breaking? Aggression: More herit able (65%) with less environmental influence (5%).
Rule-breaking: Less herit able (48%) with greater environmental influenc e ( 18%).
What are the genetic heritability differences for AB with and without CU traits? AB with CU trait s: 81% heritable.
AB without C U traits: 30% herit able.
What findings have adoption studies revealed about AB? 1. Severe AB in biologic al parent s predict s great er CU t rait s in c hildren.
2. Positive parenting by adopt ive parents reduces CU traits.
What neurotransmitter systems are often studied in relation to AB? 1. Dopaminergic system: A lt ered dopamine levels may c ontribute to heightened reward sensit ivity.
2. Serotonergic system: Great er serotonin is linked to poor impulse cont rol and irritability.
Which genes are associated with AB in molecular genetic studies? 1. Dopaminergic genes: Linked to reward sensitivit y and AB.
2. Serotonin transporter polymorphism: Short allele linked t o AB.
3. Monoamine oxidase-A ( MAOA ) gene: Involved in serot onin breakdown, linked to AB.
What is a gene-environment (GxE) interaction, and how does it relate to AB? In a GxE interac tion, genetic variation predict s AB only in spec ific environment al context s.
For example, genetic predispositions may only lead to AB under adverse environment al conditions .
What is the goal of genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in the context of AB? GWAS examines whether individual differences in AB are associated with allelic differences across the genome. However, detecting genetic effects requires large sample sizes due to the small effect size of individual genetic variants.
What brain regions are implicated in AB, and how do they function? 1. Amygdala: Linked to height ened fear responses.
2. Prefrontal c ortex: As soc iated wit h disinhibit ion and impulse c ontrol.
3. Striatum: Tied to reward s ensitivity.
AB is oft en marked by heightened amygdala ac tivity, lower prefrontal ac tivation, and reduced amygdala-prefront al connect ivity.
What disorders are associated with aggression? - **Int ermit tent Explosive Disorder (IED)** - c harac terized by frequent and problematic impulsive aggress ive outburst s.
- **Borderline Personalit y Disorder ( BPD)** - c harac terized by inst ability in self-image, in int erpersonal relationships as well as impulsivity and affect .
- **Antisocial Personality Disorder ( AsDP)** - c harac terized by a pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others.
What is serotonin (5-HT), and what functions does it regulate? Serotonin is a monoamine neurotransmitter derived from L-tryptophan, regulating mood, appetite, sleep, gastrointestinal muscle contractility, and self-injurious behavior.
What factors influence serotonin’s action in the brain? 1. The specific receptor subtype it binds to.
2. The amount of 5-HT available in t he synapse.
3. The level of enzymatic activity.
4. Availability of agonist s or ant agonist s for competitive binding.
How is serotonin linked to impulsive aggression? Low serotonin levels in emotion-regulat ing brain regions ( e.g., prefrontal c ortex, anterior cingulate cortex) predispose individuals to impulsive aggression.
Reduced serotonin metabolit es ( e.g., 5-HIAA in CSF) are associat ed with violent and suicidal behaviors.
What did early studies (1976–1979) reveal about serotonin and aggression? 1. Sheard et al.: L it hium carbonate (serot onin- enhanc ing agent) reduced impulsive aggression in prison inmates.
2. Asberg et al.: Lower 5-HIAA levels in CSF correlated with violent and suicidal behaviors.
3. Brown et al.: Found a st rong inverse relationship between 5-HIA A levels and aggres sion, wit h MHPG levels positively linked t o aggression.
What role do serotonin receptors play in aggression regulation? 1. 5-HT1a receptor agonists: Typically reduc e aggression, though effec ts vary by brain region.
2. 5-HT1b receptor agonists: Can increase aggres sion under specific conditions .
3. 5-HT2a and 5-HT2c receptor act ivat ion: Generally reduc es aggression, espec ially in t he mesoc orticolimbic pathway.
4. 5-HT transport ers: Act ivation reduces pat hological aggression.
How does serotonin interact with dopamine in aggression? * Low serotonin levels are linked t o dopaminergic hyperact ivity, part ic ularly in the prefront al cort ex.
* This imbalanc e may drive impulsive aggress ion.
* Studies show elevated dopamine in the nucleus ac cumbens and reduced s erot onin in the frontal c ortex during aggression.
Does serotonin increase or decrease aggression? * Serotonin generally dec reases aggression by modulating emot ion-regulating brain regions.
* Low serotonin availability or funct ion leads to impuls ive and violent behaviors.
What is the significance of serotonin metabolites like 5-HIAA in aggression? Lower 5-HIAA levels in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) are strongly correlated with violent, suicidal, and aggressive behaviors.
What is dopamine (DA), and what are its primary functions? Dopamine is a catecholamine neurotransmitter involved in cognition, movement, sleep, mood, attention, learning and memory, and reward pathways related to behaviors like drug use, eating, and sexual activity.
How does dopamine influence aggressive behavior? * Increased DA ac tivity, particularly in the nuc leus accumbens (NAc) and anterior hypothalamus (AH), is as soc iated wit h greater aggression.
* Dopamine receptor ant agonist s targeting t hese areas reduc e aggression, indicating DA’s role in modulating aggressive behaviors.
How does dopamine receptor activity in the anterior hypothalamus (AH) influence aggression? * D2- like rec eptor antagonists in the A H suppress aggression without affec ting mobilit y or sociability.
* D5 recept ors in t he lat eral AH may modulate aggress ion through non-GABAergic pathways.
What is the significance of dopamine receptor antagonists in aggression studies? Dopamine receptor antagonists targeting D1-like and D2-like receptors reduce aggression, providing evidence that heightened dopaminergic activity contributes to aggressive behaviors.
What is norepinephrine (NE), and what are its primary functions? NE is a catecholamine neurotransmitter and stress hormone involved in the “fight-or-flight” response, modulating physiological reactions like heart rate and glucose release, as well as aggression and stress responses.
How does norepinephrine (NE) affect aggression? Low NE levels are linked to inc reased aggres sion.
High NE levels are as soc iated wit h reduced aggression, especially in certain t reatment cont exts.
How does norepinephrine (NE) modulate aggression in humans? Patients with schiz ophrenia treat ed with clozapine (which increases NE levels) exhibit ed reduced aggression compared t o those treated wit h other antipsychotic drugs.
This suggest s NE helps modulat e aggression in c linic al context
How does norepinephrine (NE) interact with other neurotransmitter systems? NE int eracts with systems like serotonin, influencing aggression in complex ways:
* Decreased NE act ivity c an lead to depress ion and self-direct ed aggression.
* Increased NE ac tivity can c ause irritability and violent aggression in some c as es.
What is Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and what is its primary function? GABA is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (CNS). It regulates neurological function by reducing neuronal activity, often producing calming effects.
How does GABA influence aggression in animal studies? 1. Increased GABA levels ( e.g., in GAT1−/− mice) are linked to reduced aggression.
2. GABA(B) receptor activat ion in the dorsal raphe nucleus increases aggress ion by modulat ing serotonin.
3. GABA(A) receptor activation, part ic ularly in alcohol-t reated mice, has been linked to heightened aggres sion, especially in alcohol-induc ed sc enarios .
What do human studies suggest about GABA’s role in aggression? 1. Higher cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) GABA levels are linked to impulsivit y but not direc tly to aggress ion.
2. Reduc ed GABA(B ) receptor activit y correlates with inc reas ed impulsivity, a trait oft en linked to aggress ion.
Does GABA increase or decrease aggression? GAB A generally decreases aggres sion due to its inhibit ory role in the CNS.
However, the effec t varies by recept or subt ype (e.g., GABA(A ), GAB A(B)) and brain region, with some GABA receptor activat ion increasing aggression ( e.g., in t he dorsal raphe nucleus).
How does GABAergic dysfunction affect aggression in the anterior hypothalamus (AH)? Reduced GABAergic inhibition in the anterior hypothalamus, often influenced by dopamine D2 receptor activity, is associated with increased aggression.
Why is GABA’s role in aggression considered context-dependent? GAB A’s eff ec ts on aggression depend on:
1. Receptor subtype (e.g., GABA( A), GABA(B) ).
2. Brain region (e.g., dorsal raphe nuc leus, ant erior hypot halamus).
3. Interaction with other neurot ransmit ter systems, like dopamine and serotonin
What role does vasopressin play in aggression? Higher cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) vasopressin levels are positively associated with increased aggression, particularly in males with personality disorders. This relationship persists even after accounting for serotonin function.
How is oxytocin linked to aggression? Lower CSF oxytocin levels are associated with a greater history of aggressive behavior, suggesting an inverse relationship between oxytocin levels and aggression.
What effect do opioids have on aggression? Elevated opioid activit y is linked to inc reased aggress ion.
Mu opioid receptor dens it y is higher in violent suicide victims, and opioid administration in healthy subjec ts increases aggression.
Opioid ant agonist s like nalt rexone reduc e self-injurious behaviors, support ing opioids’ role in aggress ion modulation.
Question Answer
What does the General Personality and Cognitive Social Learning (GPCSL) theory focus on? GPCSL recognizes multiple routes to criminal behavior and emphasizes the Central Eight risk/need factors that influence decisions to behave criminally. It considers personality, family relationships, and environmental cues.
What are the Central Eight risk/need factors identified in GPCSL theory? 1. Criminal hist ory.
2. Procriminal at titudes.
3. Procriminal ass oc iates.
4. Antisocial personalit y pattern.
5. Family/marital relationships .
6. School/work.
7. Subst anc e abus e.
8. Leisure/recreat ion.
What is the difference between dynamic risk factors and static risk factors? Static risk f ac tors: Cannot c hange ( e.g., criminal hist ory) .
Dynamic risk factors: C an change over time and are target s for int ervention ( e.g., procriminal at titudes , s ubst ance abuse).
How does GPCSL theory view the cognitive decision to commit a crime? The cognitive decision is influenced by immediate environment, Central Eight risk/need factors, and the balance of rewards and costs in a given situation.
What are examples of procriminal attitudes in GPCSL theory? 1. Identification with criminals.
2. Negative views of t he law and justice system.
3. Beliefs that crime yields rewards .
4. Rationalizations that just ify criminal behavior (e.g., “ the victim deserved it” ).
How do procriminal associates increase the likelihood of crime? 1. Encouraging c riminal behavior through social influence.
2. Isolating individuals f rom prosocial associates.
3. Providing reinforcement for c riminal act ions.
What are key dynamic targets for change in reducing antisocial personality patterns? 1. Increasing self -cont rol.
2. Building problem-solving s kills.
3. Enhancing empat hy.
4. Practicing anger management.
How do environmental cues influence criminal decision-making? Environmental cues act as facilitators or obstacles (e.g., unlocked vs. locked car). They shape the likelihood of criminal action in combination with risk/need factors.
What role do social class and culture play in GPCSL theory? They provide context for crime but do not directly cause it. Criminal behavior is better explained by individual Central Eight risk/need factors and specific reward-cost contingencies.
What is the relationship between the number of Central Eight factors and criminal behavior? As the number of Central Eight risk/need factors increases, the likelihood of engaging in illegal behavior also increases.
What are common risk indicators for criminal behavior according to GPCSL? 1. Early involvement in criminal ac tivities.
2. Ext ensive criminal history.
3. Variety of offens es ( propert y and violent crimes).
4. Rule violat ions under s upervision (e.g., parole violat ions).
What personality traits in GPCSL theory are not strongly linked to criminal behavior? Happiness, self-esteem, sociability, anxiety, and psychopathology are not strongly associated with criminal behavior in GPCSL theory.
What does GPCSL say about the role of antisocial personality patterns in crime? Antisoc ial personalit y pat terns involve:
1. Weak self- cont rol and lack of planning.
2. Negative emotionality, such as anger and impulsivity.
These traits c an act as bot h st able and ac ut e dynamic factors in criminal behavior.
What factors in GPCSL theory may reduce the risk of criminal behavior? 1. Strong prosoc ial at titudes and associations.
2. High self-c ont rol and problem-s olving skills.
3. Positive family relat ionships and st rong supervision.
4. Sat is fying s chool/work and leisure act ivit ies.
What are rewards and costs in the learning of behavior? Reward: A s timulus that increases t he likelihood of a behavior.
Cost: A st imulus t hat decreases the likelihood of a behavior.
Rewards and costs can oc cur before (signaled) or after behavior and influenc e its acquisit ion, maintenance, and modification.
What are additive and subtractive rewards and costs? Additive rewards: Introduce somet hing pleasant (e.g., praise).
Subtractive rewards: Remove something unpleasant ( e.g., ending discomfort) .
Additive c ost s: Add something unpleasant ( e.g., punishment) .
Subtractive costs : Remove somet hing pleasant ( e.g., losing privileges).
What factors influence whether a stimulus is a reward or cost? 1. Genetic disposition ( e.g., response to drugs).
2. Cognitive funct ioning (e.g., ability to consider long-term c ost s).
3. Human development (e.g., age-appropriate rewards).
4. State conditions ( e.g., int oxication).
How does density of rewards and costs affect behavior? Frequent and immediate rewards st rengt hen behavior.
Costs are more effect ive if t hey are c onsistent and immediat e.
High rewards f or prosoc ial behavior reduc e t he appeal of deviant behavior by inc reasing it s costs.
What are non-mediated influences in behavior? These are automatic behaviors shaped by past reinforcement and habitual associations, independent of conscious decision-making.
What does GPCSL say about the balance of rewards and costs in criminal behavior? Criminal behavior inc reas es when rewards f or crime outweigh cost s and rewards for prosocial behavior are low.
Criminal behavior dec reas es when c os ts for crime inc rease and pros ocial rewards are high.
What are key findings supporting GPCSL and the Central Eight risk/need factors? 1. Fact ors like proc riminal att it udes, assoc iates, and antisocial personalit y patterns are highly significant predic tors of crime.
2. Lower-c lass origins and personal distress are minor risk fact ors compared to at titudes and behavior.
How do procriminal attitudes and associates increase crime likelihood? 1. Encourage criminal behavior through soc ial reinforc ement.
2. Reduc e exposure to prosocial influenc es .
3. Create a network that normalizes deviant behavior.
What role does B.F. Skinner’s principles play in GPCSL theory? Skinner’s concepts of timing and frequency of rewards and costs are central. GPCSL emphasizes the density of rewards and costs in shaping behavior.
What is the importance of intermediate levels of rewards and costs in criminal behavior? Adjusting rewards and costs is most effective when they are at intermediate levels, as extreme levels may lose their influence on behavior.
What are the two interpretations of antisocial personality? 1. Ext reme versions of normal personality t rait s found in everyone.
2. A clinical perspec tive viewing ant isocial personality as a ment al disorder or pathology.
What is antisocial personality disorder (APD) according to the DSM-5? APD is characterized by a pervasive disregard for the rights of others and often has an early onset, with conduct disorder in childhood serving as a precursor.
How does psychopathy differ from APD? Psychopathy includes both behavioral and emotional characteristics and is more strongly linked to criminal behavior. It provides a more structured personality construct than APD.
What are Cleckley’s three characteristic patterns of psychopaths? 1. Psyc hopat hs appear outwardly normal, without halluc inations, delusions, or debilitating anxiet y/guilt .
2. They are unrespons ive t o social c ontrol, continuing problematic behavior despite punishment.
3. Criminal behavior is not necessary for a psychopat hy diagnosis.
What conclusions follow from the assumption that a psychopath is not necessarily a criminal? 1. Not all c riminals are psychopathic.
2. Crime explanations do not fully explain ps ychopat hy, and vice versa.
3. Assessment and treat ment for psychopaths and criminals should diff er significant ly.
What role does conduct disorder play in APD? Conduct disorder in childhood often serves as a precursor to APD, with early signs of disregard for others’ rights and societal rules.
What implications does the distinction between psychopathy and criminality have for treatment? Treat ment for psychopaths should focus on their emot ional and personality t raits.
Treat ment for c riminals s hould address their behavioral patterns and environment al influenc es .
What is the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R), and who developed it? The PCL-R was developed by Robert Hare (2003) to objectively assess psychopathy. It scores traits and behaviors associated with psychopathy on a 0–40 scale, where higher scores indicate a greater likelihood of psychopathy.
What are the four factors of the PCL-R? 1. Interpersonal: Glibness, c onning/manipulation.
2. Affect ive: L ack of remorse, callous ness.
3. Lifestyle: Impulsivity, need for stimulation.
4. Antisocial: Juvenile delinquenc y, criminal versat ility.
What is the difference between a dimensional and taxon view of psychopathy? Dimens ional view: Psychopathy exists on a continuum, wit h varying levels of traits .
Taxon view: Ps ychopat hy is a distinct category, with a spec ific cut off sc ore ident if ying someone as a psyc hopath.
How does the PCL-R define Factor 1 traits? Interpersonal traits like glibness, manipulativeness, and arrogance, along with affective traits like lack of empathy and remorse.
How does the PCL-R define Factor 2 traits? Lifestyle traits like impulsivity and thrill-seeking, and antisocial traits like juvenile delinquency and criminal versatility.
What is a noncriminal psychopath or “successful psychopath”? A noncriminal psychopath exhibits psychopathic traits, such as charm, manipulation, and lack of empathy, but avoids engaging in criminal behavior. These traits may be channeled into socially acceptable or morally questionable fields, like business or politics.
What traits distinguish successful psychopaths from criminal psychopaths? Suc cessful psychopaths:
1. Show st rong affective and interpersonal trait s (e.g., charm, manipulativeness).
2. Exhibit fewer behavioral traits ( e.g., impulsivity, c riminal act ions).
3. Us e their trait s to achieve success without breaking the law.
What are the environmental risk factors for psychopathy? 1. Early-onset ant isocial behavior.
2. Disrupt ed family dynamics.
3. Childhood maltreat ment.
What are the biological underpinnings of psychopathy? 1. Prefrontal c ortex deficits: Impair executive funct ions like planning and impulse control.
2. Genetic influences: Twin studies suggest up t o 69% heritability of psychopathy traits.
3. Neurophysiologic al defic it s: Impaired punishment processing and difficult y learning from negat ive cons equenc es.
What principles might improve the treatment of psychopaths? 1. Risk principle: Intensive interventions for high-ris k offenders.
2. Need princ iple: Focus on criminogenic needs (e.g., impulsivity, lack of prosocial skills).
3. Responsivit y principle: Use cognit ive- behavioral intervent ions tailored to learning styles.
Can children be labeled as psychopaths? While psychopathy-like traits can appear in children (e.g., callous-unemotional traits, impulsivity), labeling them as psychopaths is controversial due to concerns about stigma and developmental changes.
What are traits of juvenile psychopathy that persist into adulthood? 1. Callous-unemotional t raits.
2. Impulsivity.
3. Sensation-seeking.
These traits show cont inuity with adult psychopathy f eatures.
How do psychopathy traits affect legal accountability? Psychopathy’s neurobiological deficits (e.g., impaired decision-making) may raise questions about culpability, but courts often impose harsher punishments, viewing psychopathy as a sign of heightened dangerousness.
What is the difference between primary and secondary psychopaths? Primary psyc hopaths: Have inherent t rait s like emot ional coldness and lack of empathy.
Sec ondary psychopaths: Develop psyc hopat hic t raits due t o environmental fac tors, such as trauma or adversit y.
How does Gottfredson and Hirschi’s theory view self-control? They argue that low self-control alone explains criminal behavior, focusing on the inability to delay immediate gratification for long-term goals.
What is the strength model of self-control? Proposed by Baumeister et al., it compares self-c ontrol to a musc le that can be:
1. Strengthened through prac tice.
2. Depleted t hrough overuse, leading to diminished performance in subsequent tasks .
Why is self-control vital in addressing criminal behavior? Offenders often have a lower baseline self-control, making them prone to impulsive decisions and quick energy depletion when exercising self-control. Improving self-control and fostering prosocial attitudes can reduce criminal tendencies.
What does criminogenic needs mean in the context of psychopathy? These are modifiable risk factors tied to criminal behavior, such as impulsivity, poor problem-solving, and procriminal attitudes, which can be addressed in treatment.
What role does cognition play in the GPCSL model? Cognition (i.e., the decision to act in a specific way) is central to the GPCSL model. Decisions are influenced by proximal factors, and even impulsive or automatic actions can often be traced back to earlier active choices.
Why is adolescence a critical period for delinquent behavior? Adolescence involves biological, cognitive, and emot ional growth, wit h yout hs seeking aut onomy.
Delinquent behavior can appear as a way to:
1. Gain independenc e from parents.
2. Challenge authority.
3. Impress peers.
What parental factors influence delinquency? 1. Modeling antisoc ial behaviors.
2. Poor emotional bonds with children.
3. Ineffect ive discipline or monitoring.
4. Host ility in parent ing, leading to association with delinquent peers .
How do delinquent peers influence criminal behavior? 1. Model and reinforce ant isocial behaviors.
2. Disc ourage prosoc ial behaviors.
3. Increase t he risk of criminal involvement through social rewards for deviance.
What is the “Birds of a Feather” hypothesis regarding peer associations? Proposed by Glueck and Glueck (1950) and supported by self-c ontrol theory:
- Delinquent s nat urally associat e with others who share similar trait s (e.g., low self-control).
- Peer associat ions do not significantly increase t he likelihood of crime; individuals would engage in crime regardless.
What is the Social Reinforcement Hypothesis regarding peer associations? This hypothesis argues:
1. Delinquent peers reinforc e c riminal behavior through modeling and rewards.
2. Strong friendships among delinquents increase criminal ac tions by promoting procriminal attit udes and punishing prosocial behavior.
How does the GPCSL model reconcile the two hypotheses about delinquency and peer associations? The GPCSL model recognizes t hat:
1. Individuals with Antisoc ial Pers onality Patt erns (APP) are predispos ed to criminal behavior, regardless of peers.
2. However, APP traits als o increase t he likelihood of forming deviant peer groups, which further reinforce delinquent behaviors.
What factors increase the likelihood of joining delinquent peer groups? 1. Poor self-control.
2. Weak emotional bonds wit h parents.
3. Failure in school or work.
4. Exc lusion from prosocial peer net works due t o early aggressive behaviors.
What psychological effects does social exclusion have on offenders? 1. Low self- es teem: Criminal groups provide a sense of inclusion, boosting self-est eem.
2. Increased aggression: Soc ial exclusion triggers hos tility and aggress ion toward others.
3. Reduc ed prosocial behavior: Excluded individuals become less charitable, cooperat ive, and helpful.
Does gang membership increase criminal activity? Yes. Studies, including longitudinal research, show that gang membership is associated with an increase in general criminal activity and violent crime, even though many members were delinquent before joining.
What is the fluid nature of gang membership? Most members join and leave gangs over time.
85% of boys in the Pit tsburgh Youth St udy left their gang within f our years.
Only about 15% of members are core members deeply involved in gang ac tivities.
What are the risk factors for gang membership? R
Is psychopathy common among gang members?
What are procriminal attitudes? Procriminal attitudes refer to beliefs, thoughts, and feelings that justify criminal behavior in certain situations, such as cheating on taxes or using violence in response to insults. They focus on when breaking the law is seen as acceptable.
What are the two perspectives on the development of procriminal attitudes?
How does Freud’s superego theory explain criminal behavior? Freud suggested that criminal behavior might result from a lack of a developed superego (conscience), often due to disrupted caregiver attachments, leading to poor impulse control and failure to internalize social norms.
How does Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning relate to procriminal attitudes? Kohlberg proposed that delays in moral reasoning development can result in criminal behavior. Offenders often show moral reasoning at lower developmental stages compared to non-offenders.
What role does social learning theory play in the development of procriminal attitudes? Procriminal attitudes are learned through modeling and conditioning within immediate social contexts like family, peers, and school. Social learning theory emphasizes mechanisms of learning and individual differences.
What are the two factors that increase the attitude-behavior consistency for procriminal attitudes?
What are the three classifications of procriminal attitudes?
What are techniques of neutralization, and why are they important?
What are the five techniques of neutralization described by Sykes and Matza?
What does Identification with Criminal Others (IWCO) involve? IWCO refers to valuing criminal behavior and seeking approval within criminal peer groups. It often involves pride in criminal actions and rejection of societal norms.
What is the Rejection of Convention in procriminal attitudes? It is the devaluation of social institutions like work, school, and law enforcement, reducing the appeal of conventional life and making crime seem like a more favorable alternative.
Why are procriminal attitudes considered a dynamic risk factor? Because they are modifiable, meaning changes in procriminal attitudes are associated with changes in criminal behavior.
How do cognitive-behavioral interventions target procriminal attitudes?
How do violent video games affect aggressive cognitions?
What is the impact of violent video games on aggressive affect?
What do studies say about violent video games and prosocial behaviors or empathy?
What do we know about physiological and neurological outcomes related to violent video games?
Is there evidence linking violent video games to delinquency and criminal behavior? Only 1 study addressed these outcomes, providing too little data for conclusions about links to delinquency or criminal behavior.
What does research say about age and the effects of violent video games?
Do violent video games affect males and females differently?
What do studies reveal about the effects of violent video games on ethnically diverse populations? Only one study focused on Hispanic adolescents, leaving insufficient data to draw conclusions about ethnicity and violent video game effects.
Is there a link between the degree of violent video game exposure and aggression?
Do other risk factors moderate the effects of violent video games on aggression?
What is the conclusion of the link between violent video games and aggression? Violent video game use is a documented risk factor for aggression but not for criminal behavior. While it contributes to negative social and cognitive outcomes, it is one of many factors influencing aggressive tendencies. Further research and balanced policymaking are needed to address these effects effectively.
Question Answer
What are the four generations of offender risk assessment tools?
What is the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model?
What are the Big Four risk factors in criminal behavior?
What theoretical model is most prominent in the Psychology of Criminal Conduct (PCC)?
What are the empirical findings supporting the Risk Principle, Need principle and Responsivity principle?
What is the predictive validity of 1G vs. 2G assessments?
What distinguishes 3G and 4G risk assessment tools?
What does the Correctional Program Assessment Inventory (CPAI2000) evaluate?
What are critiques of the RNR model?
What is the General Personality Cognitive Social Learning (GPCSL) perspective? The GPCSL perspective explains criminal behavior through a framework focusing on dynamic risk factors (e.g., attitudes, behaviors) and social learning processes. It underpins the Central Eight risk/need factors and informs the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model for effective offender assessment and treatment.
What is the difference between General Responsivity and Specific Responsivity?
What does the Need Principle focus on? Treatment must prioritize criminogenic needs, which are dynamic factors linked to recidivism (e.g., procriminal attitudes, substance abuse). Addressing noncriminogenic needs is secondary but can improve engagement in treatment.
How does the Risk Principle affect treatment intensity?
Why is structured assessment important in the RNR model? Structured assessments are more reliable and valid than unstructured professional judgment. They help accurately identify high-risk offenders and align treatment intensity with risk levels.
What is the strength principle in RNR? Integrating offender strengths into assessments and treatment enhances engagement, motivation, and recidivism reduction.
What are the four types of predictions in a 2 × 2 risk assessment table?
What characterizes first-generation risk assessments?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of second-generation risk assessments?
How did third-generation assessments improve on previous methods?
What distinguishes fourth-generation assessments from earlier tools?
What is the Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (LS/CMI)?
What are Daly’s five pathways for female offending?
What are Gender-Informed (GI) factors, and how do they impact risk assessment?
What are acute dynamic risk factors, and why are they important?
What are the guidelines for effective offender assessment?
Why is adherence to least restrictive alternatives important in offender assessment?
What are direct protective factors in youth violence?
What are buffering protective factors, and how do they differ from direct protective factors?
How does resilience relate to protective factors?
What role does high intelligence play in preventing youth violence?
How do social cognitions influence youth violence?
What temperament traits protect against antisocial behavior?
What biological factors act as protective factors against youth violence?
What are examples of promising protective factors for youth violence?
How does executive functioning relate to intelligence as a protective factor?
How does anxiety function as both a protective and risk factor?
What is the role of the MAO-A gene in youth violence?
Why is ego resiliency important in preventing violence?
How do biosocial interactions influence youth violence?
What role does the parent-child relationship play in preventing youth violence?
How does socioeconomic status (SES) impact youth violence?
What are the buffering effects of low parental stress?
How does constructive parental coping influence youth behavior?
What are the direct protective effects of educational support from parents?
1
Question Answer
What is forensic psychology? It engages with settings, purposes and issues centered on criminal and civil justice. It includes the behavior, usually harmful to others, which triggers the operation of the agencies which then involved.
What are the 4 core roles of a forensic psychologist? Conduct ing psyc hological applications and interventions
Research
Communicat ing psyc hological knowledge and advise to other professionals
Training other professionals in psyc hological s kills and knowledge
What is the main focus of forensic psychology? Clinical psychology applied to a forensic context
What are the key questions in forensic psychology? Who commit s crime and why?
How do we ass ess t he risk of criminal behavior and recidivism?
What c an we do to minimize that risk?
What does 'fitness to plead' mean? A defendant must understand court proceedings and aid in their defense
What can impair a defendant's fitness to plead? Lack of medication, addiction, trauma, or mental disorder
What is 'Actus Reus' in legal terms? The criminal act or lack of an act
What does 'Mens Rea' refer to? The intent or willingness to commit a crime
What is the M'Naughten test of insanity? A test to establish if a defendant was insane at the time of the crime
What are the disposals for insanity cases? Hospital order, supervision order, absolute discharge
What is the definition of automatism in legal terms? Lack of intent or involuntary action beyond the individual's control
What does conducting psychological applications and interventions involve? Identifying, assessing, and addressing issues through a cycle of formulation, planning, implementation, and evaluation
What is involved in the research role of forensic psychologists? Designing, conducting, analyzing, and evaluating applied, field-based research projects
What is essential when communicating psychological knowledge to other professionals? Sensitive and appropriate interpersonal engagement with their perspectives
What does training other professionals in psychological skills involve? Analyzing suboptimal job performance and investigating various factors affecting it
What is the importance of flexibility in forensic psychology practice? It allows responsiveness without compromising standards
Question Answer
How do personal capabilities and predispositions influence a person? They affect how the environment influences the shaping of behavior and, reciprocally, how the behavior can modify biological tendencies.
Describe two general trajectories of criminality in youth The first t rajec tory is t he **adolescent -limited***,* which represents the majority of yout hs who will engage in delinquent act ivit ies at some point during adolesc ence but desist in early adulthood.
The second traject ory is called the **life-course-persistent.** These are t he offenders , mostly males , who start behaving antisoc ially early and continue through t o adult hood, often escalating in the
seriousness of their ac ts.
What is heredity? Heredity is the transmission of genetic information from one generation to the next.
Is there evidence of intergenerational criminality? There is a high correlation between the fathers criminality and the sons criminality. This applies equally to boys and girls.
What is also of influence in the transmission of crime from parent to child? Other factors such as parental monitoring and disciplining practices, having a father with a poor work record, and living in poor housing are also important. Official police and court processing may also be of influence.
How can 'assertive mating' explain the transmission of crime from parent to child? 83% of boys grew up and married women who also had criminal records.
Family criminalit y was the best predictor of anti-social behavior for any family member.
When the mother was arrest ed,t he chanc e of the father having been arrest ed was five times more likely.
What does a higher concordance rate in monozygotic (MZ) twins compared to dizygotic (DZ) twins suggest? It suggests that heredity has a stronger influence on the trait being studied.
What were the concordance rates for criminality found by Lange (1929), and Christiansen (1970), and Dalgaard for MZ a Lange (1929): MZ t wins: 77% c oncordance & DZ twins: 12% concordanc e
Christians en (1970): 35% for M Z twins , 12% for DZ t wins.
Dalgaard: 26% for M Z twins .
What is the equal environments assumption in twin studies? The assumption that identical twins (MZ) and fraternal twins (DZ) experience similar environments, so differences in concordance rates are primarily due to genetics.
What did Grove et al. (1990) find about MZ twins raised apart and antisocial personality disorder? They found a 29% concordance rate for antisocial personality disorder, consistent with other twin studies on crime.
What is the discordant MZ-twin method, and what does it aim to uncover? It assumes MZ twins raised together do not share exactly the same environments. This method helps identify potential specific environmental causes, holding genetics constant.
In Caspi et al. (2004), what did researchers conclude about the role of maternal treatment in child aggression? Negative maternal emotions strongly predicted child aggression, suggesting that maternal treatment, not genetics, explained child aggressiveness.
What factors are analyzed in adoption studies on criminal behavior? Adoption s tudies analyze:
(a) The criminal history of biological parents .
(b) The c riminal history of adopt ive parents.
(c) Combinat ions of c riminalit y in biologic al and adoptive parent s.
What did a study of over 14,000 adoptees in Denmark (1924-1947) reveal about genetic influences on criminality? Adoptees wit h criminal biologic al parent s raised by noncriminal adopt ive parents had a convict ion rate of 20%, compared to 13.5% for those with nonc riminal biologic al and adoptive parent s.
This suggest s a modest genetic influenc e on criminal behavior (effect size: 0.03) .
How does heritability of behavioral issues vary with severity? Severe behavioral problems (e.g., major depress ion, antisocial behavior) have a stronger genetic component.
Life-course-persistent offenders show herit ability of up to 70%, c ompared t o 35% for adolesc ence-limited offenders.
What differences in heritability were observed between genders in severe antisocial behavior? Females with life-course-persistent offending showed stronger genetic influences compared to males.
What did Harden et al. (2008) and Armour and Haynie (2007) find about early sexual activity and delinquency? Cont rary to prior research, Harden et al. found that early sexual activit y was as soc iated wit h lower delinquenc y, highlighting the c omplexity of the relat ionship.
Armour and Haynie (2007) not ed that early sexual debut inc reas ed the risk of delinquency by 20%, though causation remains unclear.
What are the 2 levels in which the nature-nurture interaction can proceed? There is the **molec ular genet ic ** level
There is a higher level of t he **behavioral markers** repres enting the biologic al sys tems that underlie criminal conduc t.
What does the MAOA gene do? School at tachment and repeating a grade, bot h risk fact ors for delinquency, interact with the MAOA gene.
The MAOA gene is widely regarded to influenc e aggression via serotonin and dopamine neurot ransmission.
Give 5 biological markers indicative of biological system processes that may interact with environmental factors: - Sensation seeking
- High energy
- Low self-c ont rol
- Emotionality
- Callousness
What did Lombroso conclude about criminals after observing a convict’s brain? 1. Criminals biologically resemble lower-order animals.
2. They behave like animals wit h few inhibit ions, as “biologic al throwbacks” t o an earlier evolut ionary s tage.
3. Some criminals are “born bad.”
What is the limbic system, and why is it called the “old brain”? The limbic system is a brain circuit controlling basic emotions and motivations. It is called the “old brain” because it developed early in evolution and is similar to structures in lower-level animals.
What did Charles Goring’s (1913) and Hooten (1939) study reveal about the physical differences between convicts and nGoring found no significant physical differences bet ween 3,000 Englis h c onvic ts and groups of university student s, hospital patient s, and soldiers.
Hooten found differences in 19 of 33 physical c harac teristics, with criminals having low foreheads, protruding ears, and being generally physically inferior.
What is plasticity, and how does it affect the brain? Plasticity is the brain’s ability to adapt, with neurons assuming the functions of damaged areas. The brain is more plastic during youth than adulthood.
What are William Sheldon’s three body types, and how do they relate to delinquency? 1. Ectomorph: Thin and fragile.
2. Endomorph: Overweight and round.
3. Mesomorph: Muscular and athlet ic .
The Gluecks ( 1950) f ound t hat delinquent s were more likely to be mes omorphs.
How do the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex interact in violent behavior? Violent behavior depends on processes in both the limbic system (emot ions and mot ivations) and the prefront al cort ex (impulse cont rol and executive functioning).
The limbic syst em ( and amygdala) ac t as the gas pedal and t he pfc act s as t he brakes. If one doesn’t funct ion as t hey should, t hings van go wrong
What racial differences did Rushton and Jensen propose regarding intelligence and behavior? They argued t hat :
1. Asians are the mos t advanced in intelligence, temperament, and social organization.
2. Caucasians are intermediat e.
3. Blac ks are the least advanced.
Note: This theory is highly c ontroversial and criticized for it s lack of s cientific validity and its racial bias
What is the role of the frontal lobes in behavior? The frontal lobes are responsible for attention, planning, impulse control, and executive functioning. Development continues until around age 25, influencing the “age-crime curve.”
What is the “cad” strategy in evolutionary criminology? The “cad” strategy refers to men using deceitful or aggressive tactics to reproduce while avoiding paternal responsibilities, in contrast to “dads” who commit to monogamy and child-rearing.
How are frontal lobes different in white-collar criminals compared to other criminals? White-collar criminals tend to have greater gray matter thickness in their frontal lobes compared to average criminals.
What are the two main types of life-course-persistent offenders? 1. Moffitt’s neurops ychological t ype: Individuals wit h neuropsychological problems, diffic ult t emperament s, and poor socialization experiences.
2. Psyc hopat hs: Individuals pursuing a s trategic “life his tory” to maximize mating s uc cess wit hout significant neuropsychologic al defic it s.
What are the traits of a difficult temperament in a child? 1. Intens e react ions to stimuli.
2. Generally negative mood.
3. Slowness to adapt to change.
4. Irregularit y in sleep, hunger, and ot her bodily func tions.
What is passive avoidance learning, and how does it teach self-control? Passive avoidance learning t eaches self- cont rol t hrough fear reduction:
1. Antisocial behavior is punished, producing fear.
2. Fear discourages t he behavior, and its reduct ion reinforces inhibition.
What is the “age-crime curve”, and how is it linked to brain development? The age-crime curve shows that antisocial behaviors peak in late adolescence and decline in early adulthood. This pattern is linked to delayed development of the frontal lobes.
How do criminals differ from noncriminals in reproductive behavior? Criminals tend t o:
- Begin sexual act ivit y earlier.
- Have children earlier.
- Have more sexual partners .
What did the Dunedin Study reveal about neuropsychological tests and delinquency? Poor neuropsychologic al test perf ormance, es pecially in verbal abilit ies, predic ted delinquency at age 18.
This was most s trongly ass oc iated wit h life- course-persistent male delinquent s but not with adolesc ent -limited delinquents .
What is the outcome of criminals mating with partners with similar temperaments and social backgrounds? They experience higher levels of failed intimate partnerships, poorer health, and higher mortality rates.
What does Moffitt’s biosocial model suggest about chronic criminality? Chronic criminalit y arises from a c ombination of:
- Biological fac tors: Neuropsychologic al defic it s (poor verbal skills, impulsiveness) .
- Ps ychosocial factors : Negative environment s that amplify these biologic al risks.
Do biological factors directly cause crime? No, biological factors do not directly cause crime but can increase the likelihood of antisocial behavior, especially in adverse environmental conditions.
How do neuropsychological deficits contribute to life-course-persistent offending? Deficits like poor verbal skills, impulsiveness, and attention issues increase the likelihood of persistent offending, especially when combined with adverse social environments.
What are the four main areas where neurobiology plays a role in criminology? 1. Underst anding criminal behavior.
2. Early detection, prediction, and intervent ion in deviant behavior.
3. Criminal proceedings: ass ess ing responsibility and informing s entencing.
4. Forensic rehabilitation and treat ment.
Why is the maturity gap important in understanding adolescent behavior? The maturity gap occurs because adolescents desire adult status but lack full neurophysiological maturity, contributing to impulsive and antisocial behaviors.
What percentage of variance in criminal behavior is attributed to genetic influences? About 40–60% of the variance in criminal behavior is attributed to genetic influences.
How do biological predispositions and environmental factors interact? Biological predispositions influence how individuals react to the environment, while environmental factors can affect gene expression, hormone and neurotransmitter levels, and brain structure and functioning.
What does neurobiological research aim to achieve in criminology? 1. Underst and the neurobiological c harac teristics of ant isocial behavior.
2. Predic t ant isocial behavior using neurobiological risk factors.
3. Study interactions between neurobiological, psychologic al, and environmental f act ors.
What is temperament, and how is it related to personality? Temperament refers to inherent and stable tendencies to respond to the environment. It is the biological precursor to personality and explains the heritability of personality.
What ethical concerns arise with neurobiological approaches to predicting and intervening in deviant behavior? 1. Stigmatization of individuals labeled as “at -risk.”
2. Risk of fals e posit ives leading to unnecessary interventions.
3. Negative impacts on self- est eem and treat ment outcomes.
4. Quest ions about decis ion-making aut onomy for c hildren labeled as at-risk.
What are the two interrelated temperamental traits linked to delinquency and life-course-persistent offenders? 1. High stimulation-seeking combined with low self- cont rol.
2. Negative emotionality, which includes f acet s like aggres sion, alienation, and st ress react ions.
What is “neuro-determinism,” and why is it a concern? “Neuro-determinism” is the belief that biological factors alone drive behavior. It risks fostering false assumptions, stigmatization, and reliance on “quick fixes” while overlooking psychological and socio-economic factors.
What is a “poorness of fit,” and how does it contribute to behavioral problems? A poorness of fit occurs when a child’s difficult temperament mismatches with caregivers’ or teachers’ approaches, leading to exacerbated behavioral problems.
How does neurophysiological underarousal contribute to sensation-seeking and criminal behavior? Individuals with low baseline arousal may seek stimulation to “wake up” their systems, predisposing them to risky and criminal behaviors, especially when combined with low self-control.
What are the risks of over-reliance on neurobiological evidence in court? 1. Fost ering “neuro- determinism.”
2. Overest imating its acc uracy in proving reduced responsibility or dangerousness.
3. Misint erpretation leading t o biased sent enc ing out comes.
How can forensic mental health interventions benefit from neurobiological insights? 1. Acc urate diagnostics c an guide treatment to reduc e recidivism.
2. Non-invasive neuro-intervent ions (e.g., neurofeedback, transc ranial magnet ic stimulation) s how promise.
3. Combining biological and ps ychological approac hes ensures balanc ed rehabilit at ion.
Why do individuals with antisocial personalities struggle with learning self-control? They often exhibit reduced fear responses and slower dissipation of physiological fear markers, impairing their ability to learn from punishment.
What risks are associated with emphasizing biological determinism in offender treatment? 1. Increased st igma and harmful stereotypes.
2. Lower pat ient motivation for recovery.
3. Viewing disorders as untreatable or permanent, which can hinder out comes.
How do sensation-seeking tendencies differ between offenders and non-offenders? Offenders tend to score higher on sensation-seeking measures and often report feeling a “rush” from engaging in criminal acts.
What is the neurophysiological arousal hypothesis in relation to crime? It suggests that some offenders engage in criminal acts for the sensation-seeking thrill, due to their underactive neurophysiological systems.
What is antisocial behavior (AB), and why is it significant? Antisocial behavior includes aggression, violence, and rule-breaking, with significant financial, social, and emotional costs to society, perpetrators, victims, and their families.
What is callous-unemotional (CU)? Callous-unemotional traits (CU) are distinguished by a persistent pattern of behavior that reflects a disregard for others, and also a lack of empathy and generally deficient affect.
How does heterogeneity manifest in youth with antisocial behavior? Youth with AB differ in onset, duration, and severity of behavior. Subtypes inc lude:
1. Early-onset AB (greater genet ic risk) .
2. Adolescent-onset AB (less severe traject ory) .
3. AB with callous-unemotional ( CU) t raits, linked to higher levels of AB.
How does the heritability of aggression differ from rule-breaking? Aggression: More herit able (65%) with less environmental influence (5%).
Rule-breaking: Less herit able (48%) with greater environmental influenc e ( 18%).
What are the genetic heritability differences for AB with and without CU traits? AB with CU trait s: 81% heritable.
AB without C U traits: 30% herit able.
What findings have adoption studies revealed about AB? 1. Severe AB in biologic al parent s predict s great er CU t rait s in c hildren.
2. Positive parenting by adopt ive parents reduces CU traits.
What neurotransmitter systems are often studied in relation to AB? 1. Dopaminergic system: A lt ered dopamine levels may c ontribute to heightened reward sensit ivity.
2. Serotonergic system: Great er serotonin is linked to poor impulse cont rol and irritability.
Which genes are associated with AB in molecular genetic studies? 1. Dopaminergic genes: Linked to reward sensitivit y and AB.
2. Serotonin transporter polymorphism: Short allele linked t o AB.
3. Monoamine oxidase-A ( MAOA ) gene: Involved in serot onin breakdown, linked to AB.
What is a gene-environment (GxE) interaction, and how does it relate to AB? In a GxE interac tion, genetic variation predict s AB only in spec ific environment al context s.
For example, genetic predispositions may only lead to AB under adverse environment al conditions .
What is the goal of genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in the context of AB? GWAS examines whether individual differences in AB are associated with allelic differences across the genome. However, detecting genetic effects requires large sample sizes due to the small effect size of individual genetic variants.
What brain regions are implicated in AB, and how do they function? 1. Amygdala: Linked to height ened fear responses.
2. Prefrontal c ortex: As soc iated wit h disinhibit ion and impulse c ontrol.
3. Striatum: Tied to reward s ensitivity.
AB is oft en marked by heightened amygdala ac tivity, lower prefrontal ac tivation, and reduced amygdala-prefront al connect ivity.
What disorders are associated with aggression? - **Int ermit tent Explosive Disorder (IED)** - c harac terized by frequent and problematic impulsive aggress ive outburst s.
- **Borderline Personalit y Disorder ( BPD)** - c harac terized by inst ability in self-image, in int erpersonal relationships as well as impulsivity and affect .
- **Antisocial Personality Disorder ( AsDP)** - c harac terized by a pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others.
What is serotonin (5-HT), and what functions does it regulate? Serotonin is a monoamine neurotransmitter derived from L-tryptophan, regulating mood, appetite, sleep, gastrointestinal muscle contractility, and self-injurious behavior.
What factors influence serotonin’s action in the brain? 1. The specific receptor subtype it binds to.
2. The amount of 5-HT available in t he synapse.
3. The level of enzymatic activity.
4. Availability of agonist s or ant agonist s for competitive binding.
How is serotonin linked to impulsive aggression? Low serotonin levels in emotion-regulat ing brain regions ( e.g., prefrontal c ortex, anterior cingulate cortex) predispose individuals to impulsive aggression.
Reduced serotonin metabolit es ( e.g., 5-HIAA in CSF) are associat ed with violent and suicidal behaviors.
What did early studies (1976–1979) reveal about serotonin and aggression? 1. Sheard et al.: L it hium carbonate (serot onin- enhanc ing agent) reduced impulsive aggression in prison inmates.
2. Asberg et al.: Lower 5-HIAA levels in CSF correlated with violent and suicidal behaviors.
3. Brown et al.: Found a st rong inverse relationship between 5-HIA A levels and aggres sion, wit h MHPG levels positively linked t o aggression.
What role do serotonin receptors play in aggression regulation? 1. 5-HT1a receptor agonists: Typically reduc e aggression, though effec ts vary by brain region.
2. 5-HT1b receptor agonists: Can increase aggres sion under specific conditions .
3. 5-HT2a and 5-HT2c receptor act ivat ion: Generally reduc es aggression, espec ially in t he mesoc orticolimbic pathway.
4. 5-HT transport ers: Act ivation reduces pat hological aggression.
How does serotonin interact with dopamine in aggression? * Low serotonin levels are linked t o dopaminergic hyperact ivity, part ic ularly in the prefront al cort ex.
* This imbalanc e may drive impulsive aggress ion.
* Studies show elevated dopamine in the nucleus ac cumbens and reduced s erot onin in the frontal c ortex during aggression.
Does serotonin increase or decrease aggression? * Serotonin generally dec reases aggression by modulating emot ion-regulating brain regions.
* Low serotonin availability or funct ion leads to impuls ive and violent behaviors.
What is the significance of serotonin metabolites like 5-HIAA in aggression? Lower 5-HIAA levels in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) are strongly correlated with violent, suicidal, and aggressive behaviors.
What is dopamine (DA), and what are its primary functions? Dopamine is a catecholamine neurotransmitter involved in cognition, movement, sleep, mood, attention, learning and memory, and reward pathways related to behaviors like drug use, eating, and sexual activity.
How does dopamine influence aggressive behavior? * Increased DA ac tivity, particularly in the nuc leus accumbens (NAc) and anterior hypothalamus (AH), is as soc iated wit h greater aggression.
* Dopamine receptor ant agonist s targeting t hese areas reduc e aggression, indicating DA’s role in modulating aggressive behaviors.
How does dopamine receptor activity in the anterior hypothalamus (AH) influence aggression? * D2- like rec eptor antagonists in the A H suppress aggression without affec ting mobilit y or sociability.
* D5 recept ors in t he lat eral AH may modulate aggress ion through non-GABAergic pathways.
What is the significance of dopamine receptor antagonists in aggression studies? Dopamine receptor antagonists targeting D1-like and D2-like receptors reduce aggression, providing evidence that heightened dopaminergic activity contributes to aggressive behaviors.
What is norepinephrine (NE), and what are its primary functions? NE is a catecholamine neurotransmitter and stress hormone involved in the “fight-or-flight” response, modulating physiological reactions like heart rate and glucose release, as well as aggression and stress responses.
How does norepinephrine (NE) affect aggression? Low NE levels are linked to inc reased aggres sion.
High NE levels are as soc iated wit h reduced aggression, especially in certain t reatment cont exts.
How does norepinephrine (NE) modulate aggression in humans? Patients with schiz ophrenia treat ed with clozapine (which increases NE levels) exhibit ed reduced aggression compared t o those treated wit h other antipsychotic drugs.
This suggest s NE helps modulat e aggression in c linic al context
How does norepinephrine (NE) interact with other neurotransmitter systems? NE int eracts with systems like serotonin, influencing aggression in complex ways:
* Decreased NE act ivity c an lead to depress ion and self-direct ed aggression.
* Increased NE ac tivity can c ause irritability and violent aggression in some c as es.
What is Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and what is its primary function? GABA is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (CNS). It regulates neurological function by reducing neuronal activity, often producing calming effects.
How does GABA influence aggression in animal studies? 1. Increased GABA levels ( e.g., in GAT1−/− mice) are linked to reduced aggression.
2. GABA(B) receptor activat ion in the dorsal raphe nucleus increases aggress ion by modulat ing serotonin.
3. GABA(A) receptor activation, part ic ularly in alcohol-t reated mice, has been linked to heightened aggres sion, especially in alcohol-induc ed sc enarios .
What do human studies suggest about GABA’s role in aggression? 1. Higher cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) GABA levels are linked to impulsivit y but not direc tly to aggress ion.
2. Reduc ed GABA(B ) receptor activit y correlates with inc reas ed impulsivity, a trait oft en linked to aggress ion.
Does GABA increase or decrease aggression? GAB A generally decreases aggres sion due to its inhibit ory role in the CNS.
However, the effec t varies by recept or subt ype (e.g., GABA(A ), GAB A(B)) and brain region, with some GABA receptor activat ion increasing aggression ( e.g., in t he dorsal raphe nucleus).
How does GABAergic dysfunction affect aggression in the anterior hypothalamus (AH)? Reduced GABAergic inhibition in the anterior hypothalamus, often influenced by dopamine D2 receptor activity, is associated with increased aggression.
Why is GABA’s role in aggression considered context-dependent? GAB A’s eff ec ts on aggression depend on:
1. Receptor subtype (e.g., GABA( A), GABA(B) ).
2. Brain region (e.g., dorsal raphe nuc leus, ant erior hypot halamus).
3. Interaction with other neurot ransmit ter systems, like dopamine and serotonin
What role does vasopressin play in aggression? Higher cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) vasopressin levels are positively associated with increased aggression, particularly in males with personality disorders. This relationship persists even after accounting for serotonin function.
How is oxytocin linked to aggression? Lower CSF oxytocin levels are associated with a greater history of aggressive behavior, suggesting an inverse relationship between oxytocin levels and aggression.
What effect do opioids have on aggression? Elevated opioid activit y is linked to inc reased aggress ion.
Mu opioid receptor dens it y is higher in violent suicide victims, and opioid administration in healthy subjec ts increases aggression.
Opioid ant agonist s like nalt rexone reduc e self-injurious behaviors, support ing opioids’ role in aggress ion modulation.
Question Answer
What does the General Personality and Cognitive Social Learning (GPCSL) theory focus on? GPCSL recognizes multiple routes to criminal behavior and emphasizes the Central Eight risk/need factors that influence decisions to behave criminally. It considers personality, family relationships, and environmental cues.
What are the Central Eight risk/need factors identified in GPCSL theory? 1. Criminal hist ory.
2. Procriminal at titudes.
3. Procriminal ass oc iates.
4. Antisocial personalit y pattern.
5. Family/marital relationships .
6. School/work.
7. Subst anc e abus e.
8. Leisure/recreat ion.
What is the difference between dynamic risk factors and static risk factors? Static risk f ac tors: Cannot c hange ( e.g., criminal hist ory) .
Dynamic risk factors: C an change over time and are target s for int ervention ( e.g., procriminal at titudes , s ubst ance abuse).
How does GPCSL theory view the cognitive decision to commit a crime? The cognitive decision is influenced by immediate environment, Central Eight risk/need factors, and the balance of rewards and costs in a given situation.
What are examples of procriminal attitudes in GPCSL theory? 1. Identification with criminals.
2. Negative views of t he law and justice system.
3. Beliefs that crime yields rewards .
4. Rationalizations that just ify criminal behavior (e.g., “ the victim deserved it” ).
How do procriminal associates increase the likelihood of crime? 1. Encouraging c riminal behavior through social influence.
2. Isolating individuals f rom prosocial associates.
3. Providing reinforcement for c riminal act ions.
What are key dynamic targets for change in reducing antisocial personality patterns? 1. Increasing self -cont rol.
2. Building problem-solving s kills.
3. Enhancing empat hy.
4. Practicing anger management.
How do environmental cues influence criminal decision-making? Environmental cues act as facilitators or obstacles (e.g., unlocked vs. locked car). They shape the likelihood of criminal action in combination with risk/need factors.
What role do social class and culture play in GPCSL theory? They provide context for crime but do not directly cause it. Criminal behavior is better explained by individual Central Eight risk/need factors and specific reward-cost contingencies.
What is the relationship between the number of Central Eight factors and criminal behavior? As the number of Central Eight risk/need factors increases, the likelihood of engaging in illegal behavior also increases.
What are common risk indicators for criminal behavior according to GPCSL? 1. Early involvement in criminal ac tivities.
2. Ext ensive criminal history.
3. Variety of offens es ( propert y and violent crimes).
4. Rule violat ions under s upervision (e.g., parole violat ions).
What personality traits in GPCSL theory are not strongly linked to criminal behavior? Happiness, self-esteem, sociability, anxiety, and psychopathology are not strongly associated with criminal behavior in GPCSL theory.
What does GPCSL say about the role of antisocial personality patterns in crime? Antisoc ial personalit y pat terns involve:
1. Weak self- cont rol and lack of planning.
2. Negative emotionality, such as anger and impulsivity.
These traits c an act as bot h st able and ac ut e dynamic factors in criminal behavior.
What factors in GPCSL theory may reduce the risk of criminal behavior? 1. Strong prosoc ial at titudes and associations.
2. High self-c ont rol and problem-s olving skills.
3. Positive family relat ionships and st rong supervision.
4. Sat is fying s chool/work and leisure act ivit ies.
What are rewards and costs in the learning of behavior? Reward: A s timulus that increases t he likelihood of a behavior.
Cost: A st imulus t hat decreases the likelihood of a behavior.
Rewards and costs can oc cur before (signaled) or after behavior and influenc e its acquisit ion, maintenance, and modification.
What are additive and subtractive rewards and costs? Additive rewards: Introduce somet hing pleasant (e.g., praise).
Subtractive rewards: Remove something unpleasant ( e.g., ending discomfort) .
Additive c ost s: Add something unpleasant ( e.g., punishment) .
Subtractive costs : Remove somet hing pleasant ( e.g., losing privileges).
What factors influence whether a stimulus is a reward or cost? 1. Genetic disposition ( e.g., response to drugs).
2. Cognitive funct ioning (e.g., ability to consider long-term c ost s).
3. Human development (e.g., age-appropriate rewards).
4. State conditions ( e.g., int oxication).
How does density of rewards and costs affect behavior? Frequent and immediate rewards st rengt hen behavior.
Costs are more effect ive if t hey are c onsistent and immediat e.
High rewards f or prosoc ial behavior reduc e t he appeal of deviant behavior by inc reasing it s costs.
What are non-mediated influences in behavior? These are automatic behaviors shaped by past reinforcement and habitual associations, independent of conscious decision-making.
What does GPCSL say about the balance of rewards and costs in criminal behavior? Criminal behavior inc reas es when rewards f or crime outweigh cost s and rewards for prosocial behavior are low.
Criminal behavior dec reas es when c os ts for crime inc rease and pros ocial rewards are high.
What are key findings supporting GPCSL and the Central Eight risk/need factors? 1. Fact ors like proc riminal att it udes, assoc iates, and antisocial personalit y patterns are highly significant predic tors of crime.
2. Lower-c lass origins and personal distress are minor risk fact ors compared to at titudes and behavior.
How do procriminal attitudes and associates increase crime likelihood? 1. Encourage criminal behavior through soc ial reinforc ement.
2. Reduc e exposure to prosocial influenc es .
3. Create a network that normalizes deviant behavior.
What role does B.F. Skinner’s principles play in GPCSL theory? Skinner’s concepts of timing and frequency of rewards and costs are central. GPCSL emphasizes the density of rewards and costs in shaping behavior.
What is the importance of intermediate levels of rewards and costs in criminal behavior? Adjusting rewards and costs is most effective when they are at intermediate levels, as extreme levels may lose their influence on behavior.
What are the two interpretations of antisocial personality? 1. Ext reme versions of normal personality t rait s found in everyone.
2. A clinical perspec tive viewing ant isocial personality as a ment al disorder or pathology.
What is antisocial personality disorder (APD) according to the DSM-5? APD is characterized by a pervasive disregard for the rights of others and often has an early onset, with conduct disorder in childhood serving as a precursor.
How does psychopathy differ from APD? Psychopathy includes both behavioral and emotional characteristics and is more strongly linked to criminal behavior. It provides a more structured personality construct than APD.
What are Cleckley’s three characteristic patterns of psychopaths? 1. Psyc hopat hs appear outwardly normal, without halluc inations, delusions, or debilitating anxiet y/guilt .
2. They are unrespons ive t o social c ontrol, continuing problematic behavior despite punishment.
3. Criminal behavior is not necessary for a psychopat hy diagnosis.
What conclusions follow from the assumption that a psychopath is not necessarily a criminal? 1. Not all c riminals are psychopathic.
2. Crime explanations do not fully explain ps ychopat hy, and vice versa.
3. Assessment and treat ment for psychopaths and criminals should diff er significant ly.
What role does conduct disorder play in APD? Conduct disorder in childhood often serves as a precursor to APD, with early signs of disregard for others’ rights and societal rules.
What implications does the distinction between psychopathy and criminality have for treatment? Treat ment for psychopaths should focus on their emot ional and personality t raits.
Treat ment for c riminals s hould address their behavioral patterns and environment al influenc es .
What is the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R), and who developed it? The PCL-R was developed by Robert Hare (2003) to objectively assess psychopathy. It scores traits and behaviors associated with psychopathy on a 0–40 scale, where higher scores indicate a greater likelihood of psychopathy.
What are the four factors of the PCL-R? 1. Interpersonal: Glibness, c onning/manipulation.
2. Affect ive: L ack of remorse, callous ness.
3. Lifestyle: Impulsivity, need for stimulation.
4. Antisocial: Juvenile delinquenc y, criminal versat ility.
What is the difference between a dimensional and taxon view of psychopathy? Dimens ional view: Psychopathy exists on a continuum, wit h varying levels of traits .
Taxon view: Ps ychopat hy is a distinct category, with a spec ific cut off sc ore ident if ying someone as a psyc hopath.
How does the PCL-R define Factor 1 traits? Interpersonal traits like glibness, manipulativeness, and arrogance, along with affective traits like lack of empathy and remorse.
How does the PCL-R define Factor 2 traits? Lifestyle traits like impulsivity and thrill-seeking, and antisocial traits like juvenile delinquency and criminal versatility.
What is a noncriminal psychopath or “successful psychopath”? A noncriminal psychopath exhibits psychopathic traits, such as charm, manipulation, and lack of empathy, but avoids engaging in criminal behavior. These traits may be channeled into socially acceptable or morally questionable fields, like business or politics.
What traits distinguish successful psychopaths from criminal psychopaths? Suc cessful psychopaths:
1. Show st rong affective and interpersonal trait s (e.g., charm, manipulativeness).
2. Exhibit fewer behavioral traits ( e.g., impulsivity, c riminal act ions).
3. Us e their trait s to achieve success without breaking the law.
What are the environmental risk factors for psychopathy? 1. Early-onset ant isocial behavior.
2. Disrupt ed family dynamics.
3. Childhood maltreat ment.
What are the biological underpinnings of psychopathy? 1. Prefrontal c ortex deficits: Impair executive funct ions like planning and impulse control.
2. Genetic influences: Twin studies suggest up t o 69% heritability of psychopathy traits.
3. Neurophysiologic al defic it s: Impaired punishment processing and difficult y learning from negat ive cons equenc es.
What principles might improve the treatment of psychopaths? 1. Risk principle: Intensive interventions for high-ris k offenders.
2. Need princ iple: Focus on criminogenic needs (e.g., impulsivity, lack of prosocial skills).
3. Responsivit y principle: Use cognit ive- behavioral intervent ions tailored to learning styles.
Can children be labeled as psychopaths? While psychopathy-like traits can appear in children (e.g., callous-unemotional traits, impulsivity), labeling them as psychopaths is controversial due to concerns about stigma and developmental changes.
What are traits of juvenile psychopathy that persist into adulthood? 1. Callous-unemotional t raits.
2. Impulsivity.
3. Sensation-seeking.
These traits show cont inuity with adult psychopathy f eatures.
How do psychopathy traits affect legal accountability? Psychopathy’s neurobiological deficits (e.g., impaired decision-making) may raise questions about culpability, but courts often impose harsher punishments, viewing psychopathy as a sign of heightened dangerousness.
What is the difference between primary and secondary psychopaths? Primary psyc hopaths: Have inherent t rait s like emot ional coldness and lack of empathy.
Sec ondary psychopaths: Develop psyc hopat hic t raits due t o environmental fac tors, such as trauma or adversit y.
How does Gottfredson and Hirschi’s theory view self-control? They argue that low self-control alone explains criminal behavior, focusing on the inability to delay immediate gratification for long-term goals.
What is the strength model of self-control? Proposed by Baumeister et al., it compares self-c ontrol to a musc le that can be:
1. Strengthened through prac tice.
2. Depleted t hrough overuse, leading to diminished performance in subsequent tasks .
Why is self-control vital in addressing criminal behavior? Offenders often have a lower baseline self-control, making them prone to impulsive decisions and quick energy depletion when exercising self-control. Improving self-control and fostering prosocial attitudes can reduce criminal tendencies.
What does criminogenic needs mean in the context of psychopathy? These are modifiable risk factors tied to criminal behavior, such as impulsivity, poor problem-solving, and procriminal attitudes, which can be addressed in treatment.
What role does cognition play in the GPCSL model? Cognition (i.e., the decision to act in a specific way) is central to the GPCSL model. Decisions are influenced by proximal factors, and even impulsive or automatic actions can often be traced back to earlier active choices.
Why is adolescence a critical period for delinquent behavior? Adolescence involves biological, cognitive, and emot ional growth, wit h yout hs seeking aut onomy.
Delinquent behavior can appear as a way to:
1. Gain independenc e from parents.
2. Challenge authority.
3. Impress peers.
What parental factors influence delinquency? 1. Modeling antisoc ial behaviors.
2. Poor emotional bonds with children.
3. Ineffect ive discipline or monitoring.
4. Host ility in parent ing, leading to association with delinquent peers .
How do delinquent peers influence criminal behavior? 1. Model and reinforce ant isocial behaviors.
2. Disc ourage prosoc ial behaviors.
3. Increase t he risk of criminal involvement through social rewards for deviance.
What is the “Birds of a Feather” hypothesis regarding peer associations? Proposed by Glueck and Glueck (1950) and supported by self-c ontrol theory:
- Delinquent s nat urally associat e with others who share similar trait s (e.g., low self-control).
- Peer associat ions do not significantly increase t he likelihood of crime; individuals would engage in crime regardless.
What is the Social Reinforcement Hypothesis regarding peer associations? This hypothesis argues:
1. Delinquent peers reinforc e c riminal behavior through modeling and rewards.
2. Strong friendships among delinquents increase criminal ac tions by promoting procriminal attit udes and punishing prosocial behavior.
How does the GPCSL model reconcile the two hypotheses about delinquency and peer associations? The GPCSL model recognizes t hat:
1. Individuals with Antisoc ial Pers onality Patt erns (APP) are predispos ed to criminal behavior, regardless of peers.
2. However, APP traits als o increase t he likelihood of forming deviant peer groups, which further reinforce delinquent behaviors.
What factors increase the likelihood of joining delinquent peer groups? 1. Poor self-control.
2. Weak emotional bonds wit h parents.
3. Failure in school or work.
4. Exc lusion from prosocial peer net works due t o early aggressive behaviors.
What psychological effects does social exclusion have on offenders? 1. Low self- es teem: Criminal groups provide a sense of inclusion, boosting self-est eem.
2. Increased aggression: Soc ial exclusion triggers hos tility and aggress ion toward others.
3. Reduc ed prosocial behavior: Excluded individuals become less charitable, cooperat ive, and helpful.
Does gang membership increase criminal activity? Yes. Studies, including longitudinal research, show that gang membership is associated with an increase in general criminal activity and violent crime, even though many members were delinquent before joining.
What is the fluid nature of gang membership? Most members join and leave gangs over time.
85% of boys in the Pit tsburgh Youth St udy left their gang within f our years.
Only about 15% of members are core members deeply involved in gang ac tivities.
What are the risk factors for gang membership? R
Is psychopathy common among gang members?
What are procriminal attitudes? Procriminal attitudes refer to beliefs, thoughts, and feelings that justify criminal behavior in certain situations, such as cheating on taxes or using violence in response to insults. They focus on when breaking the law is seen as acceptable.
What are the two perspectives on the development of procriminal attitudes?
How does Freud’s superego theory explain criminal behavior? Freud suggested that criminal behavior might result from a lack of a developed superego (conscience), often due to disrupted caregiver attachments, leading to poor impulse control and failure to internalize social norms.
How does Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning relate to procriminal attitudes? Kohlberg proposed that delays in moral reasoning development can result in criminal behavior. Offenders often show moral reasoning at lower developmental stages compared to non-offenders.
What role does social learning theory play in the development of procriminal attitudes? Procriminal attitudes are learned through modeling and conditioning within immediate social contexts like family, peers, and school. Social learning theory emphasizes mechanisms of learning and individual differences.
What are the two factors that increase the attitude-behavior consistency for procriminal attitudes?
What are the three classifications of procriminal attitudes?
What are techniques of neutralization, and why are they important?
What are the five techniques of neutralization described by Sykes and Matza?
What does Identification with Criminal Others (IWCO) involve? IWCO refers to valuing criminal behavior and seeking approval within criminal peer groups. It often involves pride in criminal actions and rejection of societal norms.
What is the Rejection of Convention in procriminal attitudes? It is the devaluation of social institutions like work, school, and law enforcement, reducing the appeal of conventional life and making crime seem like a more favorable alternative.
Why are procriminal attitudes considered a dynamic risk factor? Because they are modifiable, meaning changes in procriminal attitudes are associated with changes in criminal behavior.
How do cognitive-behavioral interventions target procriminal attitudes?
How do violent video games affect aggressive cognitions?
What is the impact of violent video games on aggressive affect?
What do studies say about violent video games and prosocial behaviors or empathy?
What do we know about physiological and neurological outcomes related to violent video games?
Is there evidence linking violent video games to delinquency and criminal behavior? Only 1 study addressed these outcomes, providing too little data for conclusions about links to delinquency or criminal behavior.
What does research say about age and the effects of violent video games?
Do violent video games affect males and females differently?
What do studies reveal about the effects of violent video games on ethnically diverse populations? Only one study focused on Hispanic adolescents, leaving insufficient data to draw conclusions about ethnicity and violent video game effects.
Is there a link between the degree of violent video game exposure and aggression?
Do other risk factors moderate the effects of violent video games on aggression?
What is the conclusion of the link between violent video games and aggression? Violent video game use is a documented risk factor for aggression but not for criminal behavior. While it contributes to negative social and cognitive outcomes, it is one of many factors influencing aggressive tendencies. Further research and balanced policymaking are needed to address these effects effectively.
Question Answer
What are the four generations of offender risk assessment tools?
What is the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model?
What are the Big Four risk factors in criminal behavior?
What theoretical model is most prominent in the Psychology of Criminal Conduct (PCC)?
What are the empirical findings supporting the Risk Principle, Need principle and Responsivity principle?
What is the predictive validity of 1G vs. 2G assessments?
What distinguishes 3G and 4G risk assessment tools?
What does the Correctional Program Assessment Inventory (CPAI2000) evaluate?
What are critiques of the RNR model?
What is the General Personality Cognitive Social Learning (GPCSL) perspective? The GPCSL perspective explains criminal behavior through a framework focusing on dynamic risk factors (e.g., attitudes, behaviors) and social learning processes. It underpins the Central Eight risk/need factors and informs the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model for effective offender assessment and treatment.
What is the difference between General Responsivity and Specific Responsivity?
What does the Need Principle focus on? Treatment must prioritize criminogenic needs, which are dynamic factors linked to recidivism (e.g., procriminal attitudes, substance abuse). Addressing noncriminogenic needs is secondary but can improve engagement in treatment.
How does the Risk Principle affect treatment intensity?
Why is structured assessment important in the RNR model? Structured assessments are more reliable and valid than unstructured professional judgment. They help accurately identify high-risk offenders and align treatment intensity with risk levels.
What is the strength principle in RNR? Integrating offender strengths into assessments and treatment enhances engagement, motivation, and recidivism reduction.
What are the four types of predictions in a 2 × 2 risk assessment table?
What characterizes first-generation risk assessments?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of second-generation risk assessments?
How did third-generation assessments improve on previous methods?
What distinguishes fourth-generation assessments from earlier tools?
What is the Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (LS/CMI)?
What are Daly’s five pathways for female offending?
What are Gender-Informed (GI) factors, and how do they impact risk assessment?
What are acute dynamic risk factors, and why are they important?
What are the guidelines for effective offender assessment?
Why is adherence to least restrictive alternatives important in offender assessment?
What are direct protective factors in youth violence?
What are buffering protective factors, and how do they differ from direct protective factors?
How does resilience relate to protective factors?
What role does high intelligence play in preventing youth violence?
How do social cognitions influence youth violence?
What temperament traits protect against antisocial behavior?
What biological factors act as protective factors against youth violence?
What are examples of promising protective factors for youth violence?
How does executive functioning relate to intelligence as a protective factor?
How does anxiety function as both a protective and risk factor?
What is the role of the MAO-A gene in youth violence?
Why is ego resiliency important in preventing violence?
How do biosocial interactions influence youth violence?
What role does the parent-child relationship play in preventing youth violence?
How does socioeconomic status (SES) impact youth violence?
What are the buffering effects of low parental stress?
How does constructive parental coping influence youth behavior?
What are the direct protective effects of educational support from parents?
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