Philosophy of Science
Jurian Traas
FW-WB3929
2022 – 2023
,Module – Science......................................................................................................................................................3
Prelude.................................................................................................................................................................3
Categorization......................................................................................................................................................3
Praxes...................................................................................................................................................................4
Ontology...............................................................................................................................................................4
Skopology.............................................................................................................................................................5
Axiology................................................................................................................................................................6
Technology...........................................................................................................................................................7
Anthropology........................................................................................................................................................8
Module – Method.....................................................................................................................................................9
Contexts................................................................................................................................................................9
Inductivism...........................................................................................................................................................9
Hypothetico-deductivism...................................................................................................................................10
Falsificationism...................................................................................................................................................10
Paradigms..........................................................................................................................................................12
The methodology of scientific research programmes........................................................................................13
Anarchism...........................................................................................................................................................14
Conclusion..........................................................................................................................................................15
Module – Realism....................................................................................................................................................15
Scientific Realism................................................................................................................................................15
Arguments for Realism.......................................................................................................................................16
Arguments against realism................................................................................................................................17
Constructive Empiricism.....................................................................................................................................17
Structural realism...............................................................................................................................................18
Module – Observation.............................................................................................................................................19
Observational concepts......................................................................................................................................20
Observable entities.............................................................................................................................................20
Evidence.............................................................................................................................................................20
Theory-infected observation reports..................................................................................................................21
Empirical biconditionals.....................................................................................................................................21
Module – Confirmation...........................................................................................................................................22
Bayesianism........................................................................................................................................................22
Module – Explanation.............................................................................................................................................22
Nomological explanation...................................................................................................................................22
Causal explanation.............................................................................................................................................25
2
, Functional explanation.......................................................................................................................................26
Unification-Explanation......................................................................................................................................26
Module – Theory.....................................................................................................................................................27
Formal-deductive conception.............................................................................................................................27
Criticism..............................................................................................................................................................28
Module – Models....................................................................................................................................................28
Representational models...................................................................................................................................28
Idealizations.......................................................................................................................................................31
Relations between models and theories............................................................................................................32
Module – Science
Prelude
Science, in its nearly Faustian marriage with technology, in about four centuries, has shaped
and influenced, if not created much of the world around us. Without science-cum-technology,
our current lives and our societies would be impossible, unthinkable, and incomprehensible.
Science-cum-technology forms by far the most formidable force in the history of mankind.
The enlightening face of science-cum-technology is two-fold: first, the gigantic epistemic
harvest, i.e., the knowledge about, and ensuing understanding of, almost everything in the
world; and secondly, by the control of the world it has given us, the prosperity it has brought
for many (but not all) of us.
The dark face is that science-cum-technology has also polluted the world, transformed green
pastures into a garbage belts, killed animals and made species extinct, destroyed natural
habitats, drained natural resources to the point of exhaustion, poisoned the atmosphere,
befouled lakes, rivers and oceans with plastic and other harmful waste, is contributing
significantly to changing the climate into an unpleasant direction, and therefore is threatening
our very existence on planet Earth — welcome in the Anthropocene.
Anyhow, whether eventually we all go down together or will survive, philosophy must deal
with science and technology. In this course, we deal with science, and in the current Module
we also pay some attention to technology.
Categorization
Categorization is the gaining of understanding about to which category something belongs.
The opening question: ‘What-is-an-X?’ can be answered by providing categories: does X
belong to category 1, 2, or 3? By looking for categorizations, you embed X in something you
already know. Classifications may be entirely satisfactory on their own, but at least they are
helpful in further directing your search.
What is science? (From the Latin word for certain knowledge: Scientia.) Science comprises
many things, such as theories, hypotheses, publications, etc. To harbor all these things,
science cannot be something simple. Therefore, the general category to which science
belongs, of which science then is a subcategory, is the ontic category of a praxis.
3
, Science is an umbrella-term covering the plurality of scientific praxes. We first explain what a
praxis is (Section 3); then we expound what the subcategory of a scientific praxis is
(ontology). This will be science: science is the plurality of scientific praxes.
Praxes
A praxis is a collective and organized activity constituted by the following interrelated five
terms:
- Members – a collection of people who are active in the praxis
- Aims of the praxis
- Means to reach the aims of the praxis
- Criteria to judge whether some aim of the praxis has been reached or approached
- Norms and rules for behavior expressing values that are conducive for reaching or
approaching the aims, and sanctions for those who infringe norms or break rules that
are necessary for reaching and approaching the aims.
An example of a praxis is the criminal justice system.
1. People: judges, lawyers, prosecutors, defendants, police officers, clerks of the court,
prison keepers and guards.
2. Aim: to uphold the law, to determine whether someone has broken some law, and if
found guilty as charged, to impose a punishment.
3. Means: trace, apprehend and charge suspects (by the police), bring suspects in a court
of law, with a judge, a lawyer and a prosecutor to establish whether the defendant is
innocent or guilty as charged; prisons for the guilty.
4. Criterion: verdicts have to be beyond reasonable doubt, given by judge or jury.
5. Norms and Rules that that govern the proceedings in the courts, the behavior of the
police and prison personnel; rules for gathering evidence, for handling a crime scene;
rule to respect the rights of the suspect; the norm that to punish an innocent person is
worse than acquitting a guilty person; presumption of innocence; and perhaps more.
These norms and rules express values: honesty, prudence, accuracy, impartiality,
diligence, fairness, independence, and perhaps more.
This characterization of the justice system may not be exhaustive, but that we are dealing
here with a praxis in the sense characterized above seems incontestable, which is satisfactory
for us.
The state must have an educational system that prepares people for the various professions
mentioned in this praxis. Further, the state must finance a police force, court houses and
prisons, and their personnel. These conditions are necessary for the justice system to exist.
Ontology
The claim here is that every one of the numerous scientific disciplines (astronomy,
psychology, quantum physics, geology, etc.) is a scientific praxis (their ontic category), and
that science is the plurality of all these praxes. A praxis is scientific if (and only if) the items
of the praxis are as follows:
1. People: scientists, laboratory personnel, administrative personnel.
2. Aims: gather scientific knowledge, describe, and explain phenomena, unravel the laws
of nature, understand reality, etc.
3. Means: acting in accordance with some scientific method, which defines what
scientific research is.
4
Jurian Traas
FW-WB3929
2022 – 2023
,Module – Science......................................................................................................................................................3
Prelude.................................................................................................................................................................3
Categorization......................................................................................................................................................3
Praxes...................................................................................................................................................................4
Ontology...............................................................................................................................................................4
Skopology.............................................................................................................................................................5
Axiology................................................................................................................................................................6
Technology...........................................................................................................................................................7
Anthropology........................................................................................................................................................8
Module – Method.....................................................................................................................................................9
Contexts................................................................................................................................................................9
Inductivism...........................................................................................................................................................9
Hypothetico-deductivism...................................................................................................................................10
Falsificationism...................................................................................................................................................10
Paradigms..........................................................................................................................................................12
The methodology of scientific research programmes........................................................................................13
Anarchism...........................................................................................................................................................14
Conclusion..........................................................................................................................................................15
Module – Realism....................................................................................................................................................15
Scientific Realism................................................................................................................................................15
Arguments for Realism.......................................................................................................................................16
Arguments against realism................................................................................................................................17
Constructive Empiricism.....................................................................................................................................17
Structural realism...............................................................................................................................................18
Module – Observation.............................................................................................................................................19
Observational concepts......................................................................................................................................20
Observable entities.............................................................................................................................................20
Evidence.............................................................................................................................................................20
Theory-infected observation reports..................................................................................................................21
Empirical biconditionals.....................................................................................................................................21
Module – Confirmation...........................................................................................................................................22
Bayesianism........................................................................................................................................................22
Module – Explanation.............................................................................................................................................22
Nomological explanation...................................................................................................................................22
Causal explanation.............................................................................................................................................25
2
, Functional explanation.......................................................................................................................................26
Unification-Explanation......................................................................................................................................26
Module – Theory.....................................................................................................................................................27
Formal-deductive conception.............................................................................................................................27
Criticism..............................................................................................................................................................28
Module – Models....................................................................................................................................................28
Representational models...................................................................................................................................28
Idealizations.......................................................................................................................................................31
Relations between models and theories............................................................................................................32
Module – Science
Prelude
Science, in its nearly Faustian marriage with technology, in about four centuries, has shaped
and influenced, if not created much of the world around us. Without science-cum-technology,
our current lives and our societies would be impossible, unthinkable, and incomprehensible.
Science-cum-technology forms by far the most formidable force in the history of mankind.
The enlightening face of science-cum-technology is two-fold: first, the gigantic epistemic
harvest, i.e., the knowledge about, and ensuing understanding of, almost everything in the
world; and secondly, by the control of the world it has given us, the prosperity it has brought
for many (but not all) of us.
The dark face is that science-cum-technology has also polluted the world, transformed green
pastures into a garbage belts, killed animals and made species extinct, destroyed natural
habitats, drained natural resources to the point of exhaustion, poisoned the atmosphere,
befouled lakes, rivers and oceans with plastic and other harmful waste, is contributing
significantly to changing the climate into an unpleasant direction, and therefore is threatening
our very existence on planet Earth — welcome in the Anthropocene.
Anyhow, whether eventually we all go down together or will survive, philosophy must deal
with science and technology. In this course, we deal with science, and in the current Module
we also pay some attention to technology.
Categorization
Categorization is the gaining of understanding about to which category something belongs.
The opening question: ‘What-is-an-X?’ can be answered by providing categories: does X
belong to category 1, 2, or 3? By looking for categorizations, you embed X in something you
already know. Classifications may be entirely satisfactory on their own, but at least they are
helpful in further directing your search.
What is science? (From the Latin word for certain knowledge: Scientia.) Science comprises
many things, such as theories, hypotheses, publications, etc. To harbor all these things,
science cannot be something simple. Therefore, the general category to which science
belongs, of which science then is a subcategory, is the ontic category of a praxis.
3
, Science is an umbrella-term covering the plurality of scientific praxes. We first explain what a
praxis is (Section 3); then we expound what the subcategory of a scientific praxis is
(ontology). This will be science: science is the plurality of scientific praxes.
Praxes
A praxis is a collective and organized activity constituted by the following interrelated five
terms:
- Members – a collection of people who are active in the praxis
- Aims of the praxis
- Means to reach the aims of the praxis
- Criteria to judge whether some aim of the praxis has been reached or approached
- Norms and rules for behavior expressing values that are conducive for reaching or
approaching the aims, and sanctions for those who infringe norms or break rules that
are necessary for reaching and approaching the aims.
An example of a praxis is the criminal justice system.
1. People: judges, lawyers, prosecutors, defendants, police officers, clerks of the court,
prison keepers and guards.
2. Aim: to uphold the law, to determine whether someone has broken some law, and if
found guilty as charged, to impose a punishment.
3. Means: trace, apprehend and charge suspects (by the police), bring suspects in a court
of law, with a judge, a lawyer and a prosecutor to establish whether the defendant is
innocent or guilty as charged; prisons for the guilty.
4. Criterion: verdicts have to be beyond reasonable doubt, given by judge or jury.
5. Norms and Rules that that govern the proceedings in the courts, the behavior of the
police and prison personnel; rules for gathering evidence, for handling a crime scene;
rule to respect the rights of the suspect; the norm that to punish an innocent person is
worse than acquitting a guilty person; presumption of innocence; and perhaps more.
These norms and rules express values: honesty, prudence, accuracy, impartiality,
diligence, fairness, independence, and perhaps more.
This characterization of the justice system may not be exhaustive, but that we are dealing
here with a praxis in the sense characterized above seems incontestable, which is satisfactory
for us.
The state must have an educational system that prepares people for the various professions
mentioned in this praxis. Further, the state must finance a police force, court houses and
prisons, and their personnel. These conditions are necessary for the justice system to exist.
Ontology
The claim here is that every one of the numerous scientific disciplines (astronomy,
psychology, quantum physics, geology, etc.) is a scientific praxis (their ontic category), and
that science is the plurality of all these praxes. A praxis is scientific if (and only if) the items
of the praxis are as follows:
1. People: scientists, laboratory personnel, administrative personnel.
2. Aims: gather scientific knowledge, describe, and explain phenomena, unravel the laws
of nature, understand reality, etc.
3. Means: acting in accordance with some scientific method, which defines what
scientific research is.
4
