Samenvatting - International and European Human Rights Law (C00J0A)

CHAPTER I: HUMAN RIGHTS. SOME INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.............................................6
I. INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................................... 6
Problem of definition......................................................................................................................... 6
II. WHAT THEY DO..................................................................................................................................... 7
Temper power................................................................................................................................... 7
Protect dignity.................................................................................................................................. 7
III. FEATURES........................................................................................................................................... 8
Absolute............................................................................................................................................ 8
Universal (?)...................................................................................................................................... 9
Inalienable (?) (onvervreemdbaar).................................................................................................... 9
Indivisble (ondeelbaar)..................................................................................................................... 9
IV. HISTORY OF RIGHTS AND GENERATIONS.................................................................................................... 9
History.............................................................................................................................................. 9
V. GENERATIONS..................................................................................................................................... 11
1. Civil and Political Rights.............................................................................................................. 11
2. Social, Economic and Cultural Rights.......................................................................................... 11
3. Collective Rights......................................................................................................................... 12
VI. HOLDERS OF HUMAN RIGHTS – BEARERS OF HUMAN RIGHTS......................................................................12
Beyond Human Beings.................................................................................................................... 12
VII HORIZONTALISATION – BEARERS OF HR.................................................................................................. 13
A ‘specialleke’: Business and Human Rights...................................................................................14
VI. HUMAN DUTIES?................................................................................................................................ 15
CHAPTER 2: HUMAN RIGHTS AS A MATTER OF INTERNATIONAL CONCERN..........................17
I. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................... 17
History............................................................................................................................................ 17
II. THE PRECURSORS OF INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION.....................................................................................17
Anti-slavery & slave trade............................................................................................................... 18
Diplomatic protection..................................................................................................................... 18
Mandates – League of Nations........................................................................................................ 18
Fair Labour Standards – ILO............................................................................................................ 18
Protection of Minority rights............................................................................................................ 19
International Humanitarian Law...................................................................................................... 19
III. A MULTILAYERED INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF SOVEREIGN STATES...................................................................19
Sovereignty.................................................................................................................................... 20
IV. UNIVERSALITY OF HUMAN RIGHTS.......................................................................................................... 22
V. SOURCES OF INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS............................................................................................23
A) Treaties...................................................................................................................................... 23
1. General................................................................................................................................................... 23
2. Interpretation.......................................................................................................................................... 23
3. Reservations............................................................................................................................................ 24
4. Termination............................................................................................................................................. 24
5. State succession (opvolging van staten)................................................................................................. 24
B) Customary Law........................................................................................................................... 24
C. Jus Cogens.................................................................................................................................. 25
D. General Principles of Law........................................................................................................... 25
E. Doctrine, rulings of quasi-jurisdictional bodies............................................................................25
F. Soft law....................................................................................................................................... 26
CHAPTER 3: HUMAN RIGHTS: THE UN...............................................................................26
I. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................... 26
II. NORMS.............................................................................................................................................. 27
III. ENFORCEMENT: TWO TRACKS:............................................................................................................... 27
1) Treaty-based mechanisms.......................................................................................................... 27
2) Charter-Based Mechanisms........................................................................................................ 30
Human rights Council: generalities.............................................................................................................. 30
Human rights Council: 4 tasks..................................................................................................................... 30
Human rights Council: review...................................................................................................................... 31
CHAPTER 4: REGIONAL SYSTEMS OF THE HUMAN RIGHTS PROTECTION..............................31
I. EUROPE.............................................................................................................................................. 31
II. COUNCIL OF EUROPE............................................................................................................................ 32
Key actors....................................................................................................................................... 32
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, Key treaties..................................................................................................................................... 32
1) European Convention on Human Rights (1950)....................................................................................... 32
2) European Social Charter (1961).............................................................................................................. 32
3) European Convention for the Protection of Individuals with Regard to Automatic Processing of Personal
Data (1981)................................................................................................................................................. 32
4) European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
(1987)......................................................................................................................................................... 32
5) European Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (1995)..................................33
6) European Convention on the Exercise of Children’s Rights (1996)...........................................................33
7) European Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (1997)............................................................33
8) Convention on Access to Official Documents (2009)............................................................................... 33
9) Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (2011).......33
III. REGIONAL MECHANISMS....................................................................................................................... 33
European Convention on Human Rights (1950)..............................................................................33
History......................................................................................................................................................... 33
Rights guaranteed....................................................................................................................................... 34
The Strasbourg control mechanism (=ECtHR)............................................................................................. 34
Advisory jurisdiction of the European Court of Human Rights...................................................................... 41
Requests for information by the Secretary-General of the Council of Europe (art. 52 ECHR).......................41
IV. EU AND ECHR.................................................................................................................................. 41
The problem................................................................................................................................... 42
The ideal solution............................................................................................................................ 42
The intermediate way:.................................................................................................................... 42
Negociations – Opinion 2/13 (18 December 2014)..........................................................................43
CHAPTER 5: OBLIGATIONS ON STATES BY INTERNATIONAL HR TREATIES.............................43
I. SECURE HR TO EVERYONE WITHIN THE JURISDICTION...................................................................................44
A. Principle: territorial jurisdiction................................................................................................... 44
B. Exception: extra-territorial jurisdiction........................................................................................ 44
(1.) the acts of diplomatic and consular agents,.......................................................................................... 44
(2.) through the consent, invitation or acquiescence of the government of that territory............................44
(3.) In certain circumstances, the use of force by a State’s agents operating outside its territory...............44
(4.) when, following lawful or unlawful military action, a Contracting State exercises effective control of an
area outside that national territory.............................................................................................................. 45
C. «Infraterritorial » jurisdiction...................................................................................................... 45
D. Specific situations...................................................................................................................... 45
1. Instantaneous (onmiddelijk) acts/omissions outside territory..................................................................45
2. Effects acts/omissions outside territory................................................................................................... 46
3. Soering Exception (most complex one).................................................................................................. 46
4. Intensity link with jurisdiction.................................................................................................................. 47
II. NATURE OF THE STATE’S OBLIGATION....................................................................................................... 47
A. Negative Obligations.................................................................................................................. 47
1. General:.................................................................................................................................................. 47
2. Limitations:............................................................................................................................................. 48
B. Positive Obligations.................................................................................................................... 49
C. Margin of Appreciation................................................................................................................ 50
History/concept:.......................................................................................................................................... 50
Breadth of MoA:........................................................................................................................................... 51
Extension to positive obligations................................................................................................................. 51
Extension to interpretation of ECHR?........................................................................................................... 52
European Supervision: procedural and substantive..................................................................................... 52
Protocol nr. 15 & Preamble.......................................................................................................................... 52
7. Examples:................................................................................................................................................ 53
CHAPER 6: HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE DOMESTIC LEGAL ORDER.............................................53
I. STATUS OF IHRL IN DOMESTIC LEGAL ORDER..................................................................................53
A. IMPLEMENTATION IHRL NORMS................................................................................................... 53
Monist v. Dualist legal systems.................................................................................................................... 53
Self-executing v. specific legislation............................................................................................................ 54
B. Right to a remedy....................................................................................................................... 54
II. EFFECTS OF A FINDING OF VIOLATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS BY AN INTERNATIONAL CONTROL ORGAN........................55
A. Execution of the Judgments (art. 46 ECHR)................................................................................55
1. Obligation to comply (res judicata).......................................................................................................... 55
2. Supervision of the execution of judgments.............................................................................................. 56
3. Infringement procedure (Art 46, 4-5)....................................................................................................... 57
B. Authority of the ECtHR’s interpretation (Res Interpretata)..........................................................57


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,CHAPTER 7: RIGHT TO LIFE..............................................................................................58
1. SUPREME VALUE IN THE HIERARCHY OF HUMAN RIGHTS................................................................................58
2. SCOPE OF APPLICATION: PROTECTION OF THE “LIFE” OF INDIVIDUALS.............................................................58
A. Protection against loss of life and against certain risks to life.....................................................58
B. Beginning and end of “life”......................................................................................................... 59
3. SCOPE OF THE PROTECTION................................................................................................................... 60
A. Negative obligation: prohibition of arbitrary interference with a person’s life............................60
Principle: prohibition of intentional deprivation of a person’s life.................................................................60
Exception (1) : Use of force, under certain conditions.................................................................................. 60
Execption (2): Death penalty....................................................................................................................... 62
B. Positive obligations..................................................................................................................... 63
1. Substantive obligation: preventive measures.......................................................................................... 63
2. Procedural obligation: effective judicial response in the event of death Or lives put at risk.....................67
CHAPTER 8: ART 3 RIGHT NOT TO BE TORTURE OR DEGRADING AND INHUMANE TREATMENT
& PUNISHMENT............................................................................................................... 69
I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS..................................................................................................................... 69
II. CATEGORIES.................................................................................................................................... 71
A. Torture........................................................................................................................................ 71
B. Inhumane and Degrading Treatment.......................................................................................... 72
III. NEGATIVE OBLIGATIONS........................................................................................................................ 73
A. Absolute prohibition:................................................................................................................... 73
B. State Responsibility:................................................................................................................... 73
C. Examples:................................................................................................................................... 74
1. Ill-treatment by police and security forces............................................................................................... 74
2. Treatment of vulnerable persons, in need of special protection...............................................................74
3. Living conditions of persons deprived of their liberty (in gevangenschap)...............................................74
4. Death penalty.......................................................................................................................................... 75
5. Life-long prison sentence........................................................................................................................ 75
6. Deportation, expulsion or extradition of aliens........................................................................................ 76
7. Sexual violence:...................................................................................................................................... 76
8. Treatment of children and minors............................................................................................................ 76
IV. POSITIVE OBLIGATIONS......................................................................................................................... 77
A. Substantive obligation: preventive measures.............................................................................77
B. Procedural obligation: effective investigation.............................................................................77
C. Prevention.................................................................................................................................. 78
CHAPTER 9: ARTICLE 10: FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION.........................................................78
I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS............................................................................................................. 78
Importance of FoE in a democratic society:....................................................................................78
Scope of application: absolute rights.............................................................................................. 80
II. NEGATIVE OBLIGATIONS.................................................................................................................. 80
A. Nature of the lawful restrictions................................................................................................. 80
B. Conditions for the lawfulness...................................................................................................... 81
C. Role of the Press in a democratic society...................................................................................81
D. Chilling Effects............................................................................................................................ 82
E. Balancing equal (fundamental) rights......................................................................................... 82
F. Examples:.................................................................................................................................... 84
III POSITIVE OBLIGATIONS.......................................................................................................................... 87
1 safety of journalists...................................................................................................................... 87
2 protection of Whistleblowers........................................................................................................ 88
3 protections of Journalistic Sources............................................................................................... 88
4 access to State-held information................................................................................................. 88
5 Pluralisms in the media................................................................................................................ 89
6 Regulations of “fora” for exercise of freedom of expression........................................................90
7 Protections of employees against actions by employers..............................................................90
IV HATE SPEECH...................................................................................................................................... 90
1 No clear definition........................................................................................................................ 90
2 Interplay with art 17.................................................................................................................... 90
3 Three or even four ways to tackle the problem............................................................................90
4 Danger of funcition creep & chilling effect...................................................................................91
5 Examples..................................................................................................................................... 91
CHAPTER 10: THE PROTECTION OF PRIVACY.....................................................................93

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, I. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................... 93
II. RIGHT TO RESPECT FOR PRIVATE LIFE....................................................................................................... 94
A. Notion of private life................................................................................................................... 94
1.Personal sphere........................................................................................................................................ 94
2. Zone of interaction of a person with others............................................................................................. 94
B. Applications................................................................................................................................ 94
1.Negative aspect....................................................................................................................................... 94
2. Positive aspects....................................................................................................................................... 97
CHAPTER 11: RIGHT OF PROPERTY (ART 1 OF PROT. 1°)...................................................100
I. SCOPE OF APPLICATION........................................................................................................................ 100
1. Object of art. 1 of Prot. 1°: right of property.............................................................................100
2. Notion of ‘possessions’............................................................................................................. 100
AUTONOMOUS MEANING:.......................................................................................................................... 100
NOT COVERED:.......................................................................................................................................... 101
II. OBLIGATIONS OF THE STATE................................................................................................................. 102
1. Negative obligations................................................................................................................. 102
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PROHIBITION OF INTERFERENCE WITH THE RIGHT OF PROPERTY............102
SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VARIOUS FORMS OF INTERFERENCE WITH THE RIGHT OF PROPERTY 102
CONTROL OF USE OF PROPERTY (§2)......................................................................................................... 104
CONTROL OF THE USE OF TAXES, OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS AND PENALTIES (§2).......................................105
OTHER INTERFERENCES WITH THE RIGHT OF PROPERTY (§1, FIRST SENTENCE)........................................106
2. Positive obligations: Measures to protect right of property:......................................................107
CHAPTER 12: RIGHT TO A FAIR TRIAL (ART 6 CONVENTION, ART 2-4 PROT. 7° AND ART 14
CCPR (2007))................................................................................................................ 107
I. SCOPE OF APPLICATION OF ART 6 ECHR (AND ART 14 CCPR): CIVIL MATTERS...............................................108
1. Disputes over right and obligations.......................................................................................... 108
FIRST CONDITION: MUST BE A DISPUTE..................................................................................................... 108
SECOND CONDITION: DISPUTE BE ON RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS OF CIVIL NATURE.................................108
RIGHTS OR OBLIGATIONS AS OBJECT OF THE DISPUTE.............................................................................. 109
2. Civil character of the rights or obligations at issue...................................................................109
II. SCOPE OF APPLICATION OF ART 6 ECHR (AND ART 14 CCPR): CRIMINAL MATTERS........................................110
1. What is a criminal charge?........................................................................................................ 110
2. Stages of the proceedings: When does art 6 start to apply?.....................................................111
III. RIGHT TO A COURT........................................................................................................................... 111
1. Principle of the rule of law........................................................................................................ 111
2. Right of access to a court......................................................................................................... 112
PRINCIPLE:................................................................................................................................................. 112
LIMITATIONS.............................................................................................................................................. 112
3. Right to a judicial determination of the dispute........................................................................112
POWER OF DECISION................................................................................................................................. 113
ADJUDICATION BY NON-JUDICIAL ORGANS; SUBSEQUENT REVIEW BY A COURT (FULL JURISDICTION; REVIEW
OF LEGALITY)............................................................................................................................................. 113
4. Respect for the final determination by a court..........................................................................113
INALTERABILITY OF JUDGMENTS................................................................................................................ 113
EXECUTION OF JUDGMENTS....................................................................................................................... 113
IV. STRUCTURAL AND PROCEDURAL GUARANTEES......................................................................................... 113
1. Tribunal established by law....................................................................................................... 113
2. Independence and impartiality................................................................................................. 114
INDEPENDENCE......................................................................................................................................... 114
IMPARTIALITY............................................................................................................................................. 114
3. Public hearings and public judgment........................................................................................ 114
4. Fair hearing: in general............................................................................................................. 115
RIGHT TO TAKE PART INTO A PROCEDURE................................................................................................. 115
ADVERSARIAL CHARACTER OF THE PROCEEDINGS.................................................................................... 115
EQUALITY OF ARMS................................................................................................................................... 115
EVIDENCE.................................................................................................................................................. 115
REASONS OF THE DECISION...................................................................................................................... 116
CONSISTENCY OF THE COURT’S CASE LAW................................................................................................ 116
5. Fair hearing: specific guarantees in criminal cases...................................................................116
RIGHT TO REMAIN SILENCE, PRIVILEGE AGAINST SELF-INCRIMINATION.....................................................116
PRESUMPTION OF INNOCENCE.................................................................................................................. 117
INFORMATION OF THE NATURE AND THE CAUSE OF THE ACCUSATION......................................................117
TIME AND FACILITIES FOR THE PREPARATION OF DEFENCE........................................................................117
DEFENSE IN PERSON OR THROUGH LEGAL ASSISTANCE............................................................................ 117
EXAMINATION OF WITNESSES (ABSENT OR ANONYMOUS WITNESSES)......................................................117
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, FREE ASSISTANCE OF AN INTERPRETER..................................................................................................... 118
COMPENSATION FOR WRONGFUL CONVICTION......................................................................................... 118
RIGHT NOT TO BE TRIED OR PUNISHED TWICE.......................................................................................... 118
REASONABLE TIME................................................................................................................................. 118
1. Period to be taken into account................................................................................................ 118
2. Assessment of the reasonableness of the length of the proceedings........................................118
3. Consequences of an undue delay............................................................................................. 119
4. Remedies against an undue delay............................................................................................ 119
CHAPTER 13: ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS................................................119
I INTRODUCTION: ECOSOC AS HR............................................................................................................ 119
Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 119
(1) International covenant on ESCR (1966) with an optional protocol (2008): complaint mechanism →
includes:.................................................................................................................................................... 119
(2) European Social Charter....................................................................................................................... 120
II. DIFFERENCES P&C VS S&E RIGHTS...................................................................................................... 121
Traditional differences – Justiciability (afdwingbaarheid)............................................................................ 121
Dichotomies are “false” ones:.................................................................................................................. 122
III. STATE OBLIGATIONS WITH RESPECT E&S&C RIGHTS................................................................................122
Generalities.................................................................................................................................. 122
Typology of obligations................................................................................................................. 123
a. Negative obligation = the obligation to respect..................................................................................... 123
b. Positive obligation = the obligation to protect (art 2, §1, ICESCR).........................................................123
c. Principle of equality and non-discrimination (art 2, §2 ICESCR)..............................................................124
d. Applications:.......................................................................................................................................... 124
CHAPTER 14: EQUALITY, NON-DISCRIMINATION, AND PROTECTION OF VULNERABLE GROUPS
.................................................................................................................................... 125
I. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................... 125
Terminology.................................................................................................................................. 125
1. Equality and non-discrimination: two sides of the same coin:................................................................125
2. Not taking into consideration differences:............................................................................................. 128
Equality and non-discrimination in the CCPR and the ECHR..........................................................129
1. CCPR: convenant on civil and political rights......................................................................................... 129
2. ECHR..................................................................................................................................................... 129
Obligations of the State................................................................................................................ 130
1. Negative obligation: prohibition of discrimination.................................................................................. 130
2. Positive obligation: protection against discrimination............................................................................ 132




5

,Chapter I: Human Rights. Some introductory
remarks
Exam: 1 open question (to reflect on certain things) and a case
Text and dictionary are allowed

I. Introduction
Problem of definition
First lesson: it is something so familiar but we don’t know what we are talking about

What are human rights?
1. A set of rights that we have because we are human beings
2. Rooted in human dignity
3. Protection against a state authority


On an abstract level these criteria are correct, but on a more practical level it doesn’t add that much.
⇨ This not tell us much more about what exactly those human rights are, how they operate, what
their nature is and what grounds them.
⇨ First problem: We give high priority to fundamental rights, we see them as supreme rights (at
the top of the legal system). While at the same time it is very difficult to use those criteria in
order to understand whether a right is a FR or an ordinary right.
⇨ ‘status: complicated’


There might be an intuitive feeling of what human rights could be but it can be misunderstood
because there are several interpretations:
⇨ DEFINITION OF THE TEXTBOOKS: ‘The right that everyone is entitled to because of being a
person.’
o Can be criticized, because it doesn’t say anything about the kind of rights.
o It’s hard to talk about HR in abstract terms => it’s a discussion on the crossroads of
philosophy & law.
⇨ DEFINITION OF LAWYERS: Lawyers typically say: ‘Human rights are the rights you would find in
human rights treaties.’
o The legal answer of the question is thus: it is an human right because the legal text
claims it. But how did they come in those treaties?
o They are the basis of the legal system, but explain which ones are Human Rights?
 It is really difficult and we have to go back on the Treaties

The lists of human rights are the result of historical evolutions. -> prof: this is a way to think about human
rights; these are human rights because history went that way.

6

, - They evolve over time and there could be an alternative evolution
- There are more historical reasons why rights are rights that is the point.
- In abstract terms we cannot agree on a definition because we look defferently at f ex world view,
religion etc.

There isn’t a comprehensive theory yet, because the problem with the existing theories in practice is
either that they:
⇨ Under protects some situations
⇨ Overprotects some situations

II. What they do
(They are related)
Temper power
o In the modern understanding: it is the verry basis
o The human rights are the rights that are created at the time of modernity
o In pre modern times there was nothing like ‘protection of human rights’; there was a different
understanding
o Why is that: this pre revolution enlightment thinking (verlichting) there was all of a sudden a
fundamental idea that the law is man’s business
 Hugo de Groot: he writes that we should consider the law as if God does not exist. We
should act like there is no God. Prof: that is the revolution, at that moment it becomes
clear that everything we know, we decide etc, is NOT a matter of the will of God BUT of
mankind
o Mankind is at the basis of those rights -> it is conventional
 This means that things change -> because we understand that it is in ‘our’ hands and not
something above our heads.
 This idea of modernity leads to revolution
o If you constitute power, you have to limit it.
 At that time in history (constitutional) power was something that human’s created. And
because of how things went in history it had to be limited.
 Human rights are minimal safeguards against abuse of power by the authorities.
 This is what constitutional and human rights still do today: in a way, they limit rather
than rule out possibilities for public authorities to intervene in the personal freedom of
citizens.
o What was de pre modern understanding? -> zie history


Protect dignity
o F ex: in the german constitution -> human dignity
o The argument that people need whenever the positivist delivers unwanted results we need
human dignity
o F ex Nazis say ‘we apply the law at that time, you cannot judge me with other laws’
 But you can push that to it’s extreme
o In the Belgian constitution this comes very late
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,o Case: H.R. Committee, 15 July 2002, Wackenheim v. France, no. 854/1999
o There was a game with dwarfs (dwergen) and they were in protective trails, and those who
could lounge them the farest won.
o Mayor of a city in France said, no I will not permit this in my city.
o A mayor in France can prohibit activities but because of public safety, healthy and order
 But they said no there was no safety issue or health or etc
 So the french councel of state approved this and said: ‘the humand dignity falls under
the public order’
o Problem with this: the person wackenheim (a dwarf) was the one contesting is. Because he
made money out of it. And he said who are you to decide, it is my right and who are you to
moralize it? And he said this is your idea of morality, but I’m entitled to have another opinion.
It is a right to make my own money.
o The case ended up before the French council of state, but Mr. Wackenheim lost. Even though
the mayor did not have a legal ground to deny a permit, because that could only happen when a
permit puts the public safety in danger. There was a lot of confusion and debate due to this.
o Wackenheim appeals to the ECtHR but he had quite a bad lawyer and the case was dismissed.
So he took it to the UN human rights committee and they said that France and the mayor could
decide to not allow this kind of activities.
o The point here is: this case shows what the intrinsic problem is with human dignity. Namely
whose human dignity?

⇨ E.g. temptation island: Pommeline was the face of a commercial for a casino. She was wearing a
bikini and had champagne in her hands.
o The ethical commission on advertising found it sexist, because there was a woman in a
bikini and it had nothing to do with a casino.
▪ They found it a violation of dignity, but can’t Pommeline choose the image she
uses as her brand.
▪ She can say I am allowed to profile myself this way

⇨ E.g. the whole discussion on sex workers. Some countries forbid it, some allow it.
o If a person decides to become a professional sex worker (freely, not forced), perhaps
that is the expression of human dignity even though what a moral majority thinks.
o The moral majority would say that sex work is a violation of the dignity of women.


⇨ E. g. Paul Martens: I’m against human dignity, but as a judge I’m really happy that it exist. Because it
can be used as an ultimum remedium.

⇨ Conclusion: there are people in favor of the concept and they are people who dislike it.


III. Features
Absolute

8

, - = they are the highest norms in the legal order; no norms are above them
- Wrong understanding: all the time, without any restriction
- Not all human rights are, only a couple of them
o E. g. Right not to be tortured, slavery are absolute, because there are no exceptions!
o But E. g. right to life is not an absolute right!
Universal (?)
- = global and timeless
- Distinction between conceptional and realistic approach are they really applying everywhere and any
time
- Such a claim is difficult to maintain and reality can be different.
- Rights we consider now as HR were maybe not considered as HR e.g. 20 years ago
- For some rights there is no discussion they are HR, but others e.g. freedom of expression, is universal
but at the same time in some areas more applicable than others

Inalienable (?) (onvervreemdbaar)
- The idea that you cannot wave with your human rights; old article 6 BW
- BUT: It does not imply that human rights cannot be suspended, conditioned or restricted
- individuals cannot be deprived of their fundamental rights
o E.g. when you are in prison
o Individuals can waive their fundamental rights -> renounce (afstand doen) the protection
 E.g. confidentiality clauses in contracts are restrictions on freedom of expression
- But e.g. freedom of expression -> the prof: can put you to hold when someone has to speak first
- You cannot do away with the core of the protection, but you can make contracts on the limits. But
you must be aware on what you are limiting.
o You cannot have a lifelong agreement, it would be doing away with your personal freedom


Indivisble (ondeelbaar)
- They are whole, you cannot split them up in categories of more important and less.
- No category is more important than another.


IV. History of Rights and Generations
If you have a look on how these rights came to be, you come to how history delivered HR, in steps,
generations
History
- Magna Charta (1215):
o it is the first text in England on basic rights that needs to protect citizens against authorities
interfering with their fundamental rights.
o All over Europe there were tendencies (neigingen) whereby it was felt that the central power
couldn’t have absolute rights to do whatever they want.
• E.g.The charters in Liège: ‘Le pauvre homme est roi dans sa maison’ =>
No matter how poor you are, you are the king in your own home. You
9

, are entitled to the same type of tranquility in your home as the Windsor
family in their castle.
o They protected some HR (often: HR of specific categories of persons).
 E.g. rights for widows, orphans…
• The main feature of these charters: rights are given by the authorities and
they can take them back.
- End of the 18 century: revolutions
th


o the concept of HR comes up at the same time in France and America.
o In both countries there was a revolution, which are seen as the starting point of HR.
• French revolution ended in 1789 with the ‘declaration des droits de l’homme
et du citoyen’
▪ ‘All people are born free and are equal before the law’
• American revolution 1791: the American constitution + Bill of Rights.
o It was the first time that there is a general catalogue of rights.
• HR were given to you because you are a human being and a member of a
political society.
• There will also be a discussion about democracy and the limit of the use of
the state’s power.
- In the 19 century: list of FR in states constitution.
th


o 1831: The BE constitution of classical liberalism
- In de last quarter of the 19th century: criticism
o Criticism coming from communist, social democrats and enlightened liberal thinkers and
politics.
o Their argument:
 You have rights, which you call fundamental and tell the state to stay away.
 Markx: aren’t you protecting bourgeoisie rights?
• What does it mean to protect the freedom of expression if people
can’t write or read? Than it remains void.
• If you daily struggle to survive, than the rights protected seem to be a
kind of luxurious good that have no meaning at all.
• You should also keep in mind the material circumstances in which
people live.
▪ Maybe there is the right to education, maybe there are efforts
to be done concerning housing, health care
- After WWII: The idea to protect human rights at a more regional or international level comes up
o They learn that it’s not sufficient to have national human rights because what if those states
don’t comply with their FR?
• You need something more, you need a place where you can complain when a
state does not comply with FR.
• That is why as of WW2 international HR is developed.
• = Rights that previously were only protected by states are now also
protected by international texts.
• It creates standards + venues where ppl can complain on regional or
international level.
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