Objectives : ①
①
Psychopathology = Intense, frequent and/or persistent maladaptive patterns of emotion, cognition and behavior.
Developmental psychopathology emphasizes: Maladaptive patterns (&disorders) occur in the context of typical development
:
—> Look at strengths & weaknesses as kid’s experience age-related challenges
But what is normal?
Descriptions can be based on:
1. Statistical deviance = disorder at the high and low cut offs
2. Sociocultural norms = disorder when failing to conform to expectations
3. Mental health perspectives = disorder based on theoretical/clinical based notions
of distress and dysfunction (quality of life being key)
Developmental epidemiology
= focuses on disorder frequency and patterns
Prevalence = the proportion of the population with a disorder (all current cases)
- Incidence = rate at which new cases arise (all new cases in a given time period)
Barriers to care
Structural barriers (e.g. no money, long waiting lists)
Perceptions of mental health (e.g. denial of disorder, fear/shame)
Perceptions of mental health services (e.g. negative experience, stigma)
Stigma
I Dimensions of stigma: Stereotypes, devaluation, discrimination
-
Targets of stigma: The individual, the family
-
Contexts of stigma: The general public, the self/individual
Mentally healthy children:
\ Experience a positive quality of life
Function well at home, school & in society
: Have no symptoms of psychopathology interfering with their development
,4 dimensions of abnormal behavior (4 D’s)
Dysfunction (inability to function in daily life)
-
Distress
I (personal experience of the child)
Deviance
-
(from the norm, heavily influenced by culture)
Danger
l
(to self or other)
Historical models of looking at psychopathology
2 ways models can function; as:
Dimensional models = typical feelings/thoughts gradually become problems which may worsen to become disorders
l
Categorical models = discrete and qualitative differences in individual patterns of emotion/cognition/behavior
-
There are 6 psychological models that try to explain psychopathology:
ooo Physiological models
= propose there is a physiological (genetic, structural, biological or chemical) basis for all psychological processes.
Behavior genetics = study of genes (nature) and environment (nurture)
Experience dependent brain plasticity = the brain can change due to our experiences and environment
Gene-by-environment effects = ways in which environment can affect children (and their brains)
Lpo Passive correlations: children are exposed to different environments by their genetically related parents
Lpo Active correlations: children select/create their own environments as a function of their genetics
.
Ho Evocative correlations: children experience different reactions/responses from others to their genetically
influenced emotions or behaviors
Current physiological models emphasize the combination of physiological factors & stress
Loa Diathesis-stress model = (genetic) predispositions in combination with additional stress lead to
the emergence of a disorder, not structural differences in and of itself
• Psychodynamic models
Contemporary psychodynamic models emphasize:
Unconscious cognitive, affective and motivational processes
: Mental representations of the self other and relationships
The meaningfulness of the individual (subjective) experiences
: A developmental perspective focused on the origins of typical and atypical personality in
<
early childhood & the challenges faced as children age
Fixation-regression model of psychopathology = suggest that individuals who failed to work through
developmental issues have become stuck & therefore show issues
• Behavioral and cognitive models
Behavioral = focus on the individual’s observable behavior within a specific environment
Cognitive = focus on the components & processes of the mind and mental development
↳ Based on learning theory = proposes that both typical and atypical behaviors are gradually acquired via
learning incl. classical & operant conditioning & observational learning & (positive or negative) reinforcement.
HA Neo-constructivist
.
approach = emphasizes evolutionary context, experience-expectant learning and both
qualitative and quantitative change across development
, • Humanistic models
Emphasis on:
Personal meaningful experiences
-
Having an innate motivation for healthy growth
: The child’s purposeful creation of self
Psychopathology = seen as an interference with the child’s natural tendencies to develop a sense of self
with valued abilities and talents.
Intervention = the (re)discovery of internal resources and external support for self-direction capacities.
Broaden-and-build theory = explores the ways in which positive experiences lay the groundwork for the
development of well-being and resilience.
too Positive youth development = involves identifying opportunities for initiative and agement for
adolescence as an application of this theory
• Family models
= Propose the best way to understand the personality and psychopathology of particular children is to
understand the dynamics of their family as they are the first setting for children’s experiences
↳ Family characteristics of a shared environment (aspects shared by all children in the family):
Family type (single, two, blended)
: Family activities, rituals and narratives
Interparental and sibling warmth vs conflict
: Parental control
I Family hierarchies and (lack of) boundaries
-
Cohesive, isengages, enmeshed or triangulated family relationships
+ changes that occur over time can have an impact
↳ Non-shared environment (aspects specific for each child within the family)
-
Influence of peer relationships
woo Normative vs atypical peer experiences
Ho Nature of interactions
Lpp Frequency of interaction
• Sociocultural models
= Focus on the ways in which social and cultural factors uniquely disadvantage
certain groups in society and increase vulnerability to disorders in these
groups (poverty, gender, culture, race)
Lpo Culture is not only the background for development, rather it is a
major influence on development itself (cross-culturally & within).
boats
Birth cohorts = individuals born in a particular historical period who
share key experiences that influence them
Adaptation & Pathways
Disorders are often seen as unsuccessful adaptation.
Adaptational failures: either delay, fixation or deviance
, Developmental path illustrate that adaptation is an ongoing activity. 4 key points:
1. Development is cumulative
2. Developmental pathways are probabilistic, not deterministic
3. Change is possible at many points
4. Change is constrained or enabled by previous adaptations
Developmental pathways can be described as:
Broad (including larger-scale goal-directed patterns of feelings, thoughts and behaviors across multiple domains)
: Narrow (involve more specific goals)
Ways in which parents influence children’s pathways:
1. Initiating trajectories = by selecting environments and activities
2. Supporting trajectories = by providing attention & encouragement
3. Mediating trajectories = by helping interpret roadblocks and avoid negative tracks
Children react to it by controlling their engagement in a pathway or initiating one
Pathways can be:
1. Multifinality = sets of similar beginnings lead to different outcomes
2. Equifinality = sets of differing circumstances that lead to the same diagnosis
For development, competence is important = reflects effective functioning in important environments.
All children display various domains of competence and incompetence = arenas of comfort
Ltg Provide a context for the individual to relax and rejuvenate so that potentially stressful changes and
experiences in another area can be endured or mastered)
2 types of models of competence:
1. Model of competence focused on domains
Young school-aged children: academic achievement, behavioral competence and social competence
Adolescence adds two more: romantic competence and job competence.
2. Model of competence focused on characteristics:
e.g. Core competencies model which is focused on 5 markers of healthy development:
Ypg A positive sense of self, self control, decision-making skills, a morel system of belief, social connections
e.g. Positive youth development model also known as 5 C’
Msg Caring, character, competence, confidence and connections
The developmental pathway is affected by:
Risk factors = increase vulnerability to disorders
Risk factors increase vulnerability in 2 ways:
1. Non-specific risk = increased vulnerability to any kind of disorder
2. Specific risk = increased vulnerability to one particular disorder
Types of risk factors:
Individual (genetics, physiological, gender, personality)
: Family (immediate environment, parenting style etc)
-
Social (larger environment, peers, socioeconomic, race)
The total number of risk factors + timing > the particular types of risk factors
①
Psychopathology = Intense, frequent and/or persistent maladaptive patterns of emotion, cognition and behavior.
Developmental psychopathology emphasizes: Maladaptive patterns (&disorders) occur in the context of typical development
:
—> Look at strengths & weaknesses as kid’s experience age-related challenges
But what is normal?
Descriptions can be based on:
1. Statistical deviance = disorder at the high and low cut offs
2. Sociocultural norms = disorder when failing to conform to expectations
3. Mental health perspectives = disorder based on theoretical/clinical based notions
of distress and dysfunction (quality of life being key)
Developmental epidemiology
= focuses on disorder frequency and patterns
Prevalence = the proportion of the population with a disorder (all current cases)
- Incidence = rate at which new cases arise (all new cases in a given time period)
Barriers to care
Structural barriers (e.g. no money, long waiting lists)
Perceptions of mental health (e.g. denial of disorder, fear/shame)
Perceptions of mental health services (e.g. negative experience, stigma)
Stigma
I Dimensions of stigma: Stereotypes, devaluation, discrimination
-
Targets of stigma: The individual, the family
-
Contexts of stigma: The general public, the self/individual
Mentally healthy children:
\ Experience a positive quality of life
Function well at home, school & in society
: Have no symptoms of psychopathology interfering with their development
,4 dimensions of abnormal behavior (4 D’s)
Dysfunction (inability to function in daily life)
-
Distress
I (personal experience of the child)
Deviance
-
(from the norm, heavily influenced by culture)
Danger
l
(to self or other)
Historical models of looking at psychopathology
2 ways models can function; as:
Dimensional models = typical feelings/thoughts gradually become problems which may worsen to become disorders
l
Categorical models = discrete and qualitative differences in individual patterns of emotion/cognition/behavior
-
There are 6 psychological models that try to explain psychopathology:
ooo Physiological models
= propose there is a physiological (genetic, structural, biological or chemical) basis for all psychological processes.
Behavior genetics = study of genes (nature) and environment (nurture)
Experience dependent brain plasticity = the brain can change due to our experiences and environment
Gene-by-environment effects = ways in which environment can affect children (and their brains)
Lpo Passive correlations: children are exposed to different environments by their genetically related parents
Lpo Active correlations: children select/create their own environments as a function of their genetics
.
Ho Evocative correlations: children experience different reactions/responses from others to their genetically
influenced emotions or behaviors
Current physiological models emphasize the combination of physiological factors & stress
Loa Diathesis-stress model = (genetic) predispositions in combination with additional stress lead to
the emergence of a disorder, not structural differences in and of itself
• Psychodynamic models
Contemporary psychodynamic models emphasize:
Unconscious cognitive, affective and motivational processes
: Mental representations of the self other and relationships
The meaningfulness of the individual (subjective) experiences
: A developmental perspective focused on the origins of typical and atypical personality in
<
early childhood & the challenges faced as children age
Fixation-regression model of psychopathology = suggest that individuals who failed to work through
developmental issues have become stuck & therefore show issues
• Behavioral and cognitive models
Behavioral = focus on the individual’s observable behavior within a specific environment
Cognitive = focus on the components & processes of the mind and mental development
↳ Based on learning theory = proposes that both typical and atypical behaviors are gradually acquired via
learning incl. classical & operant conditioning & observational learning & (positive or negative) reinforcement.
HA Neo-constructivist
.
approach = emphasizes evolutionary context, experience-expectant learning and both
qualitative and quantitative change across development
, • Humanistic models
Emphasis on:
Personal meaningful experiences
-
Having an innate motivation for healthy growth
: The child’s purposeful creation of self
Psychopathology = seen as an interference with the child’s natural tendencies to develop a sense of self
with valued abilities and talents.
Intervention = the (re)discovery of internal resources and external support for self-direction capacities.
Broaden-and-build theory = explores the ways in which positive experiences lay the groundwork for the
development of well-being and resilience.
too Positive youth development = involves identifying opportunities for initiative and agement for
adolescence as an application of this theory
• Family models
= Propose the best way to understand the personality and psychopathology of particular children is to
understand the dynamics of their family as they are the first setting for children’s experiences
↳ Family characteristics of a shared environment (aspects shared by all children in the family):
Family type (single, two, blended)
: Family activities, rituals and narratives
Interparental and sibling warmth vs conflict
: Parental control
I Family hierarchies and (lack of) boundaries
-
Cohesive, isengages, enmeshed or triangulated family relationships
+ changes that occur over time can have an impact
↳ Non-shared environment (aspects specific for each child within the family)
-
Influence of peer relationships
woo Normative vs atypical peer experiences
Ho Nature of interactions
Lpp Frequency of interaction
• Sociocultural models
= Focus on the ways in which social and cultural factors uniquely disadvantage
certain groups in society and increase vulnerability to disorders in these
groups (poverty, gender, culture, race)
Lpo Culture is not only the background for development, rather it is a
major influence on development itself (cross-culturally & within).
boats
Birth cohorts = individuals born in a particular historical period who
share key experiences that influence them
Adaptation & Pathways
Disorders are often seen as unsuccessful adaptation.
Adaptational failures: either delay, fixation or deviance
, Developmental path illustrate that adaptation is an ongoing activity. 4 key points:
1. Development is cumulative
2. Developmental pathways are probabilistic, not deterministic
3. Change is possible at many points
4. Change is constrained or enabled by previous adaptations
Developmental pathways can be described as:
Broad (including larger-scale goal-directed patterns of feelings, thoughts and behaviors across multiple domains)
: Narrow (involve more specific goals)
Ways in which parents influence children’s pathways:
1. Initiating trajectories = by selecting environments and activities
2. Supporting trajectories = by providing attention & encouragement
3. Mediating trajectories = by helping interpret roadblocks and avoid negative tracks
Children react to it by controlling their engagement in a pathway or initiating one
Pathways can be:
1. Multifinality = sets of similar beginnings lead to different outcomes
2. Equifinality = sets of differing circumstances that lead to the same diagnosis
For development, competence is important = reflects effective functioning in important environments.
All children display various domains of competence and incompetence = arenas of comfort
Ltg Provide a context for the individual to relax and rejuvenate so that potentially stressful changes and
experiences in another area can be endured or mastered)
2 types of models of competence:
1. Model of competence focused on domains
Young school-aged children: academic achievement, behavioral competence and social competence
Adolescence adds two more: romantic competence and job competence.
2. Model of competence focused on characteristics:
e.g. Core competencies model which is focused on 5 markers of healthy development:
Ypg A positive sense of self, self control, decision-making skills, a morel system of belief, social connections
e.g. Positive youth development model also known as 5 C’
Msg Caring, character, competence, confidence and connections
The developmental pathway is affected by:
Risk factors = increase vulnerability to disorders
Risk factors increase vulnerability in 2 ways:
1. Non-specific risk = increased vulnerability to any kind of disorder
2. Specific risk = increased vulnerability to one particular disorder
Types of risk factors:
Individual (genetics, physiological, gender, personality)
: Family (immediate environment, parenting style etc)
-
Social (larger environment, peers, socioeconomic, race)
The total number of risk factors + timing > the particular types of risk factors
