Chapter 2
Outline
● Naturalistic Observation: Delimiting and Reactivity
● Overcoming Reactivity: Unobtrusive Observations and Measures
● Ethograms & Interobserver Reliability
● Case Studies & Survey Research
● The Relational Approach: Contingency & Correlation
● What is a hypothesis?
● Independent Variables
● Dependent Variables
● Developing Stimuli
● Developing a Procedure
Naturalistic Observation: Delimiting and Reactivity
● Naturalistic Observation
○ Experiments are biased
■ Our presence during observation can influence behaviors
■ Our own beliefs can bias any coding that we’re doing
○ Though we try our best, pure, naturalistic, objective observation is impossible
○ BUT! It can still be used as a valuable tool
■ We know we will be biasing everyone’s behavior
○ Are boys more daring than girls? (Ginsburg & Miller, 1982)
■ Observed the behavior of 500 children up to 11 years old at a zoo
■ Two independent coders coded the number of risky behaviors exhibited
● Why does this bullet point matter?: it reduces the
amount/likelihood of biases being an alternative result → need
to have more than one coder bc they will likely be biased
■ Boys exhibited more risky behaviors
○ Why can we have a greater degree of confidence in these findings beyond just
casual observation?
■ Ginsburg and Miller defined specific behaviors
■ Ginsburg and Miller examined a specific place
■ Ginsburg and Miller controlled certain characteristics (e.g., age)
■ Ginsburg and Miller had two independent coders
● Naturalistic Observation: Two Issues
○ Delimiting
■ We can only watch so much!
■ Attention is limited
■ Researchers need to focus on what they want to know
■ Example: Defining which risky behaviors to lookout for
, ○ Reactivity →
■ Participant’s behavior changes because they’re being observed
■ Example: You being present in someone’s home to learn more about a
particular parenting behavior
Overcoming Reactivity: Unobtrusive Observations and Measures
● Overcoming Reactivity
○ If I stick a camera in your face several times throughout the day, how are you
going to react?
● Overcoming Reactivity: Unobtrusive Observations
○ Observing an individual without them knowing → Unobtrusive Observations
■ Observing in busy location
■ Use of special equipment
○ Participant Observation: The observer becomes a part of the partcipant’s lives
■ Researcher becomes “normal” for participants
● Overcoming Reactivity: Unobtrusive Measures
○ Use of indirect observations of behavior
○ The focus is on the result of the behavior, not the behavior itself
■ In other words, we examine the resulting change the behavior has on the
person
● How many times a coffee cup gets thrown away
● How much coffee is at home
● Bank statements
Ethograms & Interobserver Reliability
● What do we observe?
○ Ethogram → a table in which
certain behaviors are defined as
and each coder has one
○ Make sure you are differentiating
between different types of
behaviors in order to code correctly
■ A study focusing on
naturally occurring behavior
■ Researchers define a
specific behavior, record the
number of times the
behavior is exhibited
Outline
● Naturalistic Observation: Delimiting and Reactivity
● Overcoming Reactivity: Unobtrusive Observations and Measures
● Ethograms & Interobserver Reliability
● Case Studies & Survey Research
● The Relational Approach: Contingency & Correlation
● What is a hypothesis?
● Independent Variables
● Dependent Variables
● Developing Stimuli
● Developing a Procedure
Naturalistic Observation: Delimiting and Reactivity
● Naturalistic Observation
○ Experiments are biased
■ Our presence during observation can influence behaviors
■ Our own beliefs can bias any coding that we’re doing
○ Though we try our best, pure, naturalistic, objective observation is impossible
○ BUT! It can still be used as a valuable tool
■ We know we will be biasing everyone’s behavior
○ Are boys more daring than girls? (Ginsburg & Miller, 1982)
■ Observed the behavior of 500 children up to 11 years old at a zoo
■ Two independent coders coded the number of risky behaviors exhibited
● Why does this bullet point matter?: it reduces the
amount/likelihood of biases being an alternative result → need
to have more than one coder bc they will likely be biased
■ Boys exhibited more risky behaviors
○ Why can we have a greater degree of confidence in these findings beyond just
casual observation?
■ Ginsburg and Miller defined specific behaviors
■ Ginsburg and Miller examined a specific place
■ Ginsburg and Miller controlled certain characteristics (e.g., age)
■ Ginsburg and Miller had two independent coders
● Naturalistic Observation: Two Issues
○ Delimiting
■ We can only watch so much!
■ Attention is limited
■ Researchers need to focus on what they want to know
■ Example: Defining which risky behaviors to lookout for
, ○ Reactivity →
■ Participant’s behavior changes because they’re being observed
■ Example: You being present in someone’s home to learn more about a
particular parenting behavior
Overcoming Reactivity: Unobtrusive Observations and Measures
● Overcoming Reactivity
○ If I stick a camera in your face several times throughout the day, how are you
going to react?
● Overcoming Reactivity: Unobtrusive Observations
○ Observing an individual without them knowing → Unobtrusive Observations
■ Observing in busy location
■ Use of special equipment
○ Participant Observation: The observer becomes a part of the partcipant’s lives
■ Researcher becomes “normal” for participants
● Overcoming Reactivity: Unobtrusive Measures
○ Use of indirect observations of behavior
○ The focus is on the result of the behavior, not the behavior itself
■ In other words, we examine the resulting change the behavior has on the
person
● How many times a coffee cup gets thrown away
● How much coffee is at home
● Bank statements
Ethograms & Interobserver Reliability
● What do we observe?
○ Ethogram → a table in which
certain behaviors are defined as
and each coder has one
○ Make sure you are differentiating
between different types of
behaviors in order to code correctly
■ A study focusing on
naturally occurring behavior
■ Researchers define a
specific behavior, record the
number of times the
behavior is exhibited
