4.2 Political Parties and Era of Jefferson
The Era of Jefferson
Election of 1800: The Election of 1800 pitted Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr (Democratic
Republicans) against John Adams, Charles Pinckney, and John Jay (Federalists). Before the
ratification of the 12th Amendment in 1804, each elector cast votes for two different candidates.
The candidate with the highest number of votes became president, while the candidate with the
second highest total became vice president. It took 35 votes over the course of a tense week, but
finally, the 36th vote on February 17th in the House resulted in the election of Thomas Jefferson.
The Republicans were now in power, symbolizing the first moment in American history in which
a peaceful transfer of power would occur (from Federalists to Democratic-Republicans).
Jeffersonian Republic: Thomas Jefferson 1801-1809, James Madison 1809-1817, James
Monroe 1817-1825 (all Democratic-Republicans). From 1800-1824, the Democratic-
Republicans held a majority of seats in the House, ranging from 60% to 85% majority. They
were therefore in control of the executive branch, legislative branch, and judicial branch.
Jeffersonian Vision: Shape America into a society of sturdy, independent farmers, free from the
workshops, industrial towns, and the urban mobs of Europe.
Reduction of Federal Power: In line with his vision that all government was a necessary evil at
best, Jeffersonian republicanism called for a reduction in the power of federal government. He
reduced the size of the military and navy, repealed excise taxes (including those on whiskey),
eliminated a number of federal jobs, and reduced the national debt from $83 million to $57
million.
The Louisiana Purchase
Context: Jefferson, like a growing number of Americans, understood the US must have access to
the mouth of the Mississippi River and the port of New Orleans, or lose everything beyond the
Appalachians. Thus, when he learned that Spain had secretly given Louisiana back to France, he
was immediately on guard, as Napoleon, the greatest military genius of his time, was now his
neighbor. With the situation growing more tense, Jefferson sent James Monroe to Paris with
instructions to offer up to $10 million for New Orleans and Florida. As fate would have it, at the
exact same time, Napolean was attempting to suppress the Haitian Revolution, leaving him short
of cash.
The Offer: On April 10th, 1803, Napoleon offered up not just the city of New Orleans, but the
entire Louisiana Territory to the Americans for $15 million. Never, as historian Henry Adams
wrote, "did the United States government get so much for so little." 828,000 square miles, for
pennies an acre, to be exact. Nevertheless, he submitted the treaty to the Senate for approval, and
the Republican majority in the Senate quickly ratified this Louisiana Territory. This purchase
more than doubled the size of the United States, removed a European presence from the nation's
borders, and extended the western frontier to lands far beyond the Mississippi.
Reaction: The West and South were solidly Republican. The addition of new western states
threatened to further reduce New England's power in national affairs. So dire was the situation
that a group of diehard Federalists organized a scheme in 1804 to break away from the union and
form a "northern confederacy."
,Debate: The Embargo Act (1807)
Between 1803 and 1807, the British and French continued their alarming practice of seizing
neutral US ships. In this period, the British seized 500 ships and the French mor than 200. On
June 22nd, 1807, off the coast of Norfolk, Virginia, the British warship Leopard fired on the USS
Chesapeake. 3 Americans were killed and four were impressed into the British Navy. Americans
clamored for war, but the country had little to fight with. Yet, Jefferson was determined to put a
stop to impressment. The result was the Embargo Act of 1807. This prohibits all exports.
American vessels could not clear for any port. Though imports were permitted, few foreign ships
would come to the US if they had to return with no cargo. The Embargo Act had catastrophic
effects. Exports fell from $108 million to $22 million by 1808, and imports from $138 million to
less than $57 million. This led to an outcry from not only Federalists in New England, but
Americans around the country. In the final days of his presidency, Jefferson begrudgingly called
for its repeal in 1809 and Congress replaced it with the Non-Intercourse Act of 1809, which
forbade trade only with Great Britain and France.
John Marshall's Supreme Court
Context: After the sweeping Democratic-Republican victory on 1800, the only power remaining
to the Federalists was their control of the federal courts. John Marshall, Jefferson's cousin, had
been appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court during the final months of Adams's
presidency. He held his post for 34 years, in which time his decisions in many landmark cases
strengthened the power of the central government, much to the chagrin of Jefferson.
The Cases:
1. Marbury v. Madison (1803): In a late act by the Federalist Congress in 1801, the
Judiciary Act of 1801 was rammed through, creating 6 new circuit courts and 16 new
judge positions. These were "midnights appointments" because they were so hurriedly
pushed through. In fact, in the final hours of Adams's presidency, a few commissions
were not delivered. Jefferson ordered these be held up. One appointee, William Marbury,
petitioned to be given his commission by then-Secretary-of-State, James Madison. The
case made its way to the Supreme Court. In Marbury v. Madison, Marshall declared that
Marbury should have his commission by right. However, his request had been based on
an ambiguous clause that was unconstitutional. With this decision, Marshall established
the power of the Supreme Court to invalidate unconstitutional federal laws (judicial
review).
, 4.3 Politics and Regional Interests
Regional and Party Interests
Tariff of 1816: The Tariff of 1816 was passed in the wake of the War of 1812, fought between
the US and Britain. This tariff was passed explicitly to protect US manufactured items from
overseas competition. Since Southerners exported most of their cotton and tobacco, they soon
concluded that besides increasing the cost of nearly everything they bought, high tariffs also
limited the foreign market for these southern staples by inhibiting international exchange. This
issue would increasingly symbolize division between the North, South, and West.
Land Policy in the West: No one wished to eliminate the system of survey and sale of western
land. However, Westerners wanted cheap land, Northern manufacturers feared cheap western
land would drain off surplus labor and drive wages up, and Southern planters were concerned
that cheap western lands would drive up competition for cotton production.
Slavery: The most divisive sectional issue was slavery. After the compromises made at the
Constitutional Convention, the "peculiar institution" caused remarkably little conflict in national
politics before 1819. The importation of enslaved Africans rose in the 1790s but was abolished in
1808 without major incident. As the nation expanded, free and slave states were added to the
Union in equal numbers: free states of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois balanced by the slave states of
Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama. In 1819, there were 22 states, 11 slave and 11 free.
The Missouri Compromise
One of the first most critical moments that forced the issue of slavery into the national political
spotlight was the question over the admission of Missouri as a slave state. The Missouri Territory
had reached 60,000 settlers by 1818, allowing it to reach statehood. Many settlers in this territory
were slaveowners, and thus, Missouri would become a slave state. Congressman James
Talmadge of New York, however, introduced an amendment to bill prohibiting "the further
introduction of slavery" and provided that all enslaved persons born in Missouri would be freed
at the age of 25. While this passed in the House, it failed majorly in the Senate, blocked by
enraged southerners. After months of heated debate, Representative Henry Clay won majority
support for three bills that represented the Missouri Compromise.
Admit Missouri as a slave-holding state
Admit Maine as a free state
Prohibit slavery in the rest of the Louisiana Territory north of latitude 36°30'
Sectional feelings on the slavery issue therefore subsided after 1820 and sectional balance
was preserved for 30 years. Nevertheless, this symbolized the growing sectionalism in the
nation.
The American System
Following the War of 1812, Henry Clay proclaimed his support for the American System, a
legislative economic program designed to unify the nation by setting the first protective tariff
(Tariff of 1816) to encourage American manufacturing; creating a second national bank to
provide financial support by extending credit to farmers; and establishing a national
transportation system to aid trade (roads, canals) through federal subsidies. Debates continued,
The Era of Jefferson
Election of 1800: The Election of 1800 pitted Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr (Democratic
Republicans) against John Adams, Charles Pinckney, and John Jay (Federalists). Before the
ratification of the 12th Amendment in 1804, each elector cast votes for two different candidates.
The candidate with the highest number of votes became president, while the candidate with the
second highest total became vice president. It took 35 votes over the course of a tense week, but
finally, the 36th vote on February 17th in the House resulted in the election of Thomas Jefferson.
The Republicans were now in power, symbolizing the first moment in American history in which
a peaceful transfer of power would occur (from Federalists to Democratic-Republicans).
Jeffersonian Republic: Thomas Jefferson 1801-1809, James Madison 1809-1817, James
Monroe 1817-1825 (all Democratic-Republicans). From 1800-1824, the Democratic-
Republicans held a majority of seats in the House, ranging from 60% to 85% majority. They
were therefore in control of the executive branch, legislative branch, and judicial branch.
Jeffersonian Vision: Shape America into a society of sturdy, independent farmers, free from the
workshops, industrial towns, and the urban mobs of Europe.
Reduction of Federal Power: In line with his vision that all government was a necessary evil at
best, Jeffersonian republicanism called for a reduction in the power of federal government. He
reduced the size of the military and navy, repealed excise taxes (including those on whiskey),
eliminated a number of federal jobs, and reduced the national debt from $83 million to $57
million.
The Louisiana Purchase
Context: Jefferson, like a growing number of Americans, understood the US must have access to
the mouth of the Mississippi River and the port of New Orleans, or lose everything beyond the
Appalachians. Thus, when he learned that Spain had secretly given Louisiana back to France, he
was immediately on guard, as Napoleon, the greatest military genius of his time, was now his
neighbor. With the situation growing more tense, Jefferson sent James Monroe to Paris with
instructions to offer up to $10 million for New Orleans and Florida. As fate would have it, at the
exact same time, Napolean was attempting to suppress the Haitian Revolution, leaving him short
of cash.
The Offer: On April 10th, 1803, Napoleon offered up not just the city of New Orleans, but the
entire Louisiana Territory to the Americans for $15 million. Never, as historian Henry Adams
wrote, "did the United States government get so much for so little." 828,000 square miles, for
pennies an acre, to be exact. Nevertheless, he submitted the treaty to the Senate for approval, and
the Republican majority in the Senate quickly ratified this Louisiana Territory. This purchase
more than doubled the size of the United States, removed a European presence from the nation's
borders, and extended the western frontier to lands far beyond the Mississippi.
Reaction: The West and South were solidly Republican. The addition of new western states
threatened to further reduce New England's power in national affairs. So dire was the situation
that a group of diehard Federalists organized a scheme in 1804 to break away from the union and
form a "northern confederacy."
,Debate: The Embargo Act (1807)
Between 1803 and 1807, the British and French continued their alarming practice of seizing
neutral US ships. In this period, the British seized 500 ships and the French mor than 200. On
June 22nd, 1807, off the coast of Norfolk, Virginia, the British warship Leopard fired on the USS
Chesapeake. 3 Americans were killed and four were impressed into the British Navy. Americans
clamored for war, but the country had little to fight with. Yet, Jefferson was determined to put a
stop to impressment. The result was the Embargo Act of 1807. This prohibits all exports.
American vessels could not clear for any port. Though imports were permitted, few foreign ships
would come to the US if they had to return with no cargo. The Embargo Act had catastrophic
effects. Exports fell from $108 million to $22 million by 1808, and imports from $138 million to
less than $57 million. This led to an outcry from not only Federalists in New England, but
Americans around the country. In the final days of his presidency, Jefferson begrudgingly called
for its repeal in 1809 and Congress replaced it with the Non-Intercourse Act of 1809, which
forbade trade only with Great Britain and France.
John Marshall's Supreme Court
Context: After the sweeping Democratic-Republican victory on 1800, the only power remaining
to the Federalists was their control of the federal courts. John Marshall, Jefferson's cousin, had
been appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court during the final months of Adams's
presidency. He held his post for 34 years, in which time his decisions in many landmark cases
strengthened the power of the central government, much to the chagrin of Jefferson.
The Cases:
1. Marbury v. Madison (1803): In a late act by the Federalist Congress in 1801, the
Judiciary Act of 1801 was rammed through, creating 6 new circuit courts and 16 new
judge positions. These were "midnights appointments" because they were so hurriedly
pushed through. In fact, in the final hours of Adams's presidency, a few commissions
were not delivered. Jefferson ordered these be held up. One appointee, William Marbury,
petitioned to be given his commission by then-Secretary-of-State, James Madison. The
case made its way to the Supreme Court. In Marbury v. Madison, Marshall declared that
Marbury should have his commission by right. However, his request had been based on
an ambiguous clause that was unconstitutional. With this decision, Marshall established
the power of the Supreme Court to invalidate unconstitutional federal laws (judicial
review).
, 4.3 Politics and Regional Interests
Regional and Party Interests
Tariff of 1816: The Tariff of 1816 was passed in the wake of the War of 1812, fought between
the US and Britain. This tariff was passed explicitly to protect US manufactured items from
overseas competition. Since Southerners exported most of their cotton and tobacco, they soon
concluded that besides increasing the cost of nearly everything they bought, high tariffs also
limited the foreign market for these southern staples by inhibiting international exchange. This
issue would increasingly symbolize division between the North, South, and West.
Land Policy in the West: No one wished to eliminate the system of survey and sale of western
land. However, Westerners wanted cheap land, Northern manufacturers feared cheap western
land would drain off surplus labor and drive wages up, and Southern planters were concerned
that cheap western lands would drive up competition for cotton production.
Slavery: The most divisive sectional issue was slavery. After the compromises made at the
Constitutional Convention, the "peculiar institution" caused remarkably little conflict in national
politics before 1819. The importation of enslaved Africans rose in the 1790s but was abolished in
1808 without major incident. As the nation expanded, free and slave states were added to the
Union in equal numbers: free states of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois balanced by the slave states of
Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama. In 1819, there were 22 states, 11 slave and 11 free.
The Missouri Compromise
One of the first most critical moments that forced the issue of slavery into the national political
spotlight was the question over the admission of Missouri as a slave state. The Missouri Territory
had reached 60,000 settlers by 1818, allowing it to reach statehood. Many settlers in this territory
were slaveowners, and thus, Missouri would become a slave state. Congressman James
Talmadge of New York, however, introduced an amendment to bill prohibiting "the further
introduction of slavery" and provided that all enslaved persons born in Missouri would be freed
at the age of 25. While this passed in the House, it failed majorly in the Senate, blocked by
enraged southerners. After months of heated debate, Representative Henry Clay won majority
support for three bills that represented the Missouri Compromise.
Admit Missouri as a slave-holding state
Admit Maine as a free state
Prohibit slavery in the rest of the Louisiana Territory north of latitude 36°30'
Sectional feelings on the slavery issue therefore subsided after 1820 and sectional balance
was preserved for 30 years. Nevertheless, this symbolized the growing sectionalism in the
nation.
The American System
Following the War of 1812, Henry Clay proclaimed his support for the American System, a
legislative economic program designed to unify the nation by setting the first protective tariff
(Tariff of 1816) to encourage American manufacturing; creating a second national bank to
provide financial support by extending credit to farmers; and establishing a national
transportation system to aid trade (roads, canals) through federal subsidies. Debates continued,
