Solutions Manual for Essentials of Geology, 5th edition by Stephen Marshak All Chapters Covered

Solutions Manual
Essentials of Geology, 5th edition
by Stephen Marshak All Chapters Covered

, CHAPTER 1 R




The Earth in Context
R R R




LearningRObjectives



1. StudentsRshouldRbeRawareRofRtheRBigRBangRtheory.RDistantRgalaxiesRareRallRmovingRaw
ayRfromRus.RTheRfarthestRgalaxiesRareRrecedingRfromRusRtheRfastest.RAllRmatterRinRtheRU
niverseRwasRcontainedRinRaRsingleRpoint,RapproximatelyR13.8RbillionRyearsRago.RAtRthat
Rtime,RtheRUniverseRexplosivelyRcameRintoRexistence.
2. Stars,RincludingRourRSun,RareRnuclear-
fusionRreactors.RForRmostRofRtheirRlifeRhistoriesR(onRtheRorderRofRbillionsRofRyears),Rhydr
ogenRatomsRareRfusedRtogetherRtoRformRhelium.RLaterRstagesRinRstellarRevolutionRinclu
deRfusionRofRheliumRatomsRandRother,RheavierRelements;Rultimately,RironRisRtheRheavie
stRelementRthatRcanRbeRproducedRthroughRfusionRreactionsRwithinRstars.
3. AfterRtheirRcyclesRofRfusionRareRcomplete,RlargeRstarsRviolentlyRexplodeR(formingRsu
pernovas),RproducingRelementsRheavierRthanRironRandRleavingRbehindRaRresidueRofRd
iffuseRnebulae,RwhichRmayRbeRrecycledRtoRformRaRnewRstarRatRsomeRfutureRpoint.
4. OurRSolarRSystemRisRapproximatelyR4.57RGaR(billionRyearsRold).RAllReightRplanetsRrevol
veRaroundRtheRSunRinRcoplanar,RellipticalRorbits.RAllRplanetsRorbitRinRtheRsameRdirection
R(counterclockwise,RasRviewedRfromRaboveREarth’sRNorthRPole).RTheseRfactsRimplyRsi
multaneousRplanetaryRformationRfromRaRswirlingRnebulaRsurroundingRtheRSunR(theRsim
ilaritiesRinRorbitsRwouldRthenRbeRaRnaturalRresultRofRconservationRofRangularRmomentu
m).RTheRplanetsRaccretedRfromRthisRnebulaRthroughRgravitationalRattractionRandRhapha
zardRcollisions.RPluto,RlongRconsideredRtheR“ninthRplanet,”RhasRseenRitsRstatusRdemote
d;RastronomersRnowRrecognizeReightRmajorRplanets.
5. TheRterrestrialRplanetsR(Mercury,RVenus,REarth,RandRMars)RareRrelativelyRsmall,Rdense,
RandRrockyRworlds.RTheRgiantRplanetsRareRpredominantlyRcomposedRofRtheRlightRgases

,hydrogenRandRheliumR(JupiterRandRSaturn)RorRicesR(UranusRandRNeptune);RtheyRare
R

, muchRlargerRandRmuchRlessRdenseRthanRtheRterrestrialRplanets.
6. OurRMoonRisRthoughtRtoRhaveRoriginatedRfromRdebrisRaccumulatedRwhenRaRprotoplane
tRcollidedRwithREarthRapproximatelyR4.53RGa.
7. TheREarthRSystemRisRsubdividedRintoRtheRatmosphereR(gasesRandRaerosolsRthatRenvel
opRtheRplanet),RhydrosphereR(Earth’sRwater),RgeosphereR(solidREarth),RandRbiosphereR
(livingRthings).
8. EarthRisRchemicallyRdividedRintoRaRthin,RrockyRcrustRdominatedRbyRsilicateRminerals,RaRt
hickRmantleRcomposedRmostlyRofRiron-RandRmagnesium-
richRsilicatesR(subjectRlocallyRtoRpartialRmelting),RandRaRthick,RmetallicRcoreRmadeRprim
arilyRofRironR(theRouterRportionRofRwhichRisRliquid).RStudentsRshouldRknowRhowRseismicR
wavesRtellRusRthatRtheRouterRcoreRmustRbeRliquid.
9. Physically,RtheRuppermostRlayersRofREarthRareRtheRrigidRlithosphereR(crustRandRupperm

ostRmantle)RandRtheRasthenosphere,RwhichRisRweakerRandRflowsRplastically.RTheR“plat
es”RofRplateRtectonicsRtheoryRareRdiscreteRslabsRofRlithosphere,RwhichRmoveRwithRres
pectRtoRoneRanotherRatopRtheRasthenosphere.




SummaryRfromRtheRText



TheRgeocentricRmodelRplacedREarthRatRtheRcenterRofRtheRUniverse.RTheRheliocentricRm
odelRplacedRtheRSunRatRtheRcenter.
TheREarthRisRoneRofReightRplanetsRorbitingRtheRSun.RTheRSolarRSystemRliesRonRtheRouter
edgeRofRtheRMilkyRWayRgalaxy.RTheRUniverseRcontainsRhundredsRofRbillionsRofRgalaxies.
R



MostRastronomersRagreeRthatRthisRexpansionRbeganRafterRtheRBigRBang,RaRcataclysmic
explosionRthatRoccurredRaboutR13.7RbillionRyearsRago.
R



TheRfirstRatomsR(hydrogenRandRhelium)RofRtheRUniverseRdevelopedRwithinRminutesRofRt
heRBigRBang.RTheseRatomsRformedRvastRgasRclouds,RcalledRnebulae.
OnlyRveryRsmallRatomsRformedRduringRBigRBangRnucleosynthesis.RTheREarth,RandRtheRl
ifeRformsRonRit,RcontainRelementsRthatRcouldRhaveRbeenRproducedRonlyRduringRtheRlifeRcycle