Brain and behavior
Chapter 1 What are the origins of brain and behavior? 8
1.1 The brain 8
Brain 8
Consciousness with our without the body 8
Behavior 8
1.2 Perspectives on brain and behavior 9
1.3 Evolution of brains and of behavior 10
Taxonomy 10
Nervous systems 10
Chordate nervous system 10
1.4 Evolution of the human brain and behavior 11
Sapiens 11
Brain size and behavior 11
Counting brain cells 11
Why did the hominid brain enlarge? 11
Chapter 2 What is the nervous system’s functional anatomy? 12
2.1 Overview of brain function and structure 12
Plastic brain 12
Nervous system 12
Anatomy of the brain 12
Between the brain and skin 13
Cerebral geography 13
Blood supply of the brain 13
Inside the brain: 14
Cells and fibres 14
2.2 The conversed pattern of nervous system development 15
2.3 The central nervous system: mediating behavior 16
Spinal cord 16
Brainstem 16
Forebrain 16
Limbic system 17
Olfactory system 17
2.4 Somatic nervous system: transmitting information 18
Cranial nerves 18
Spinal nerves 18
2.5 Autonomic and enteric nervous systems visceral relations 19
The sympathetic division 19
The parasympathetic division 19
Chapter 3 What are the nervous system’s functional units? 20
3.1 Cells of the nervous system 20
, Subdivision of a neuron: 20
Three functions of neurons 20
Five types of glial cells 21
3.2 Internal structure of a cell 23
The cell 23
The nucleus and protein synthesis 23
Channels, gates and pumps 24
3.3 Genes, cells, and behaviour 25
Chromosomes 25
Dominant and recessive alleles 25
Genetic mutations 25
Applying Mendel’s principles 25
Gene modification 26
Phenotypic plasticity and the epigenetic code 26
Inheriting experience 26
Chapter 4 How do neurons use electrical signals to transmit information 27
4.1 Searching for electrical activity in the nervous system 27
Tools for measuring a neuron’s electrical activity 27
Ions 27
4.2 Electical activity at a membrane 29
Resting potential 29
Graded potentials 30
Action potential 30
Role of voltage-activated ion channels 30
Nerve impulses 31
Saltatory conduction adn the myelin sheath 31
4.3 How neurons integrate information 33
Excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials 33
Summation of inputs 33
Other parts of the neuron 33
4.4 Into the nervous system and back out 34
How sensory stimuli produce action potentials 34
How nerve impulses produce movement 34
Chapter 5 How do neurons communicate and adapt? 35
5.1 A chemical message 35
Structure of synapses 35
Neurotransmission in five steps 35
Varieties of synapses 37
Excitatory and inhibitory messages 37
5.2 Varieties of neurotransmitters and receptors 37
Four criteria for identifying neurotransmitters. 38
Classes of neurotransmitters 38
Postsynaptic receptor classes 39
, 5.3 Neurotransmitter systems and behaviour 40
Peripheral nervous system 40
Autonomic nervous system 40
Four activating systems in the central nervous system 40
5.4 Adaptive role of synapses in learning and memory 41
Chemical vs electrical synapses 41
Habituation (like ignoring ambient noise) 41
Sensitization (like PTSD) 41
Chapter 6 How do drugs and hormones influence brain and behaviour? 42
6.1 Principles of psychopharmacology 42
Drug administration routes 42
How are drugs eliminated by the body 42
Effects of drugs on the synapse 43
Tolerance 43
Sensitization 43
6.2 Psychoactive drugs 44
Psycholeptics: substances that inhibit psychological functions. 44
Psychoanaleptics: substances that stimulate psychological functions. 44
Psychodysleptics: substances that disorganize psychological functions. 45
6.3 Factors influencing individual responses to drugs 46
Why do people ‘on drugs’ behave the way they do? 46
Substance abuse vs addiction 46
Wanting-and-liking theory 46
Genetic contribution to differences in drug use 46
6.4 Hormones 47
Hierarchal control 47
Chemical classes of hormones 47
Functional groups of hormones 47
Chapter 7 How do we study the brain’s structures and functions? 48
7.1 Measuring and manipulating brain and behaviour 48
Manipulating brain-behavior interactions 48
7.2 Measuring the brain’s electrical activity 49
Recording action potentials from single cells 49
Electroencephalography (EEG) - graded potentials 49
Event-related potentials (ERPs) 49
Magnetoencephalography (MEG) 49
7.3 Anatomical imaging techniques: CT and MRI 51
Computed Tomography (CT) 51
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 51
Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) 51
Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) 51
7.4 Functional brain imaging 52
fMRI 52
, fNIRS 52
PET 52
Chapter 8 How does the nervous system develop and adapt? 53
8.1 Three perspectives on brain development 53
The three perspectives are: 53
8.2 Neurobiology of development 54
Gross development of the human nervous system 54
Formation of the neural tube 54
Origin of brain cells 54
Neuronal growth and development 55
8.3 Using emerging behaviours to infer neural maturation 57
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development 57
8.4 Brain development and the environment 58
Hormones 58
Experience and neural connectivity 58
Critical periods for experience and brain development 58
Chapter 9 How do we sense, perceive, and see the world? 60
9.1 Nature of sensation and perception 60
9.2 The visual system’s functional anatomy 61
Structure of the eye 61
The retina 61
Fovea and blind spot 61
Retinal neurons 61
The optic chiasm 62
Three routes to the visual brain 62
The occipital cortex 62
9.3 Location in the visual world 63
Receptive field 63
Location encoding 63
9.4 Neuronal activity 64
Shapes 64
Processing shapes in V1 64
Cell organization 65
Processing shapes in the temporal lobe (ventral stream) 65
Trichromatic theory (Helmholtz) 66
Opponent processes theory (Hering) 66
Vision beyond the primary visual cortex (V1) 66
9.5 Lesions in the temporal lobe 67
Visual agnosia (ventral stream, what) 67
Optic ataxia (dorsal stream, how) 67
Vision in the absence of the visual cortex 67
Chapter 10 How do we hear, speak, and make music? 68
10.1 Physical properties of sound 68
Chapter 1 What are the origins of brain and behavior? 8
1.1 The brain 8
Brain 8
Consciousness with our without the body 8
Behavior 8
1.2 Perspectives on brain and behavior 9
1.3 Evolution of brains and of behavior 10
Taxonomy 10
Nervous systems 10
Chordate nervous system 10
1.4 Evolution of the human brain and behavior 11
Sapiens 11
Brain size and behavior 11
Counting brain cells 11
Why did the hominid brain enlarge? 11
Chapter 2 What is the nervous system’s functional anatomy? 12
2.1 Overview of brain function and structure 12
Plastic brain 12
Nervous system 12
Anatomy of the brain 12
Between the brain and skin 13
Cerebral geography 13
Blood supply of the brain 13
Inside the brain: 14
Cells and fibres 14
2.2 The conversed pattern of nervous system development 15
2.3 The central nervous system: mediating behavior 16
Spinal cord 16
Brainstem 16
Forebrain 16
Limbic system 17
Olfactory system 17
2.4 Somatic nervous system: transmitting information 18
Cranial nerves 18
Spinal nerves 18
2.5 Autonomic and enteric nervous systems visceral relations 19
The sympathetic division 19
The parasympathetic division 19
Chapter 3 What are the nervous system’s functional units? 20
3.1 Cells of the nervous system 20
, Subdivision of a neuron: 20
Three functions of neurons 20
Five types of glial cells 21
3.2 Internal structure of a cell 23
The cell 23
The nucleus and protein synthesis 23
Channels, gates and pumps 24
3.3 Genes, cells, and behaviour 25
Chromosomes 25
Dominant and recessive alleles 25
Genetic mutations 25
Applying Mendel’s principles 25
Gene modification 26
Phenotypic plasticity and the epigenetic code 26
Inheriting experience 26
Chapter 4 How do neurons use electrical signals to transmit information 27
4.1 Searching for electrical activity in the nervous system 27
Tools for measuring a neuron’s electrical activity 27
Ions 27
4.2 Electical activity at a membrane 29
Resting potential 29
Graded potentials 30
Action potential 30
Role of voltage-activated ion channels 30
Nerve impulses 31
Saltatory conduction adn the myelin sheath 31
4.3 How neurons integrate information 33
Excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials 33
Summation of inputs 33
Other parts of the neuron 33
4.4 Into the nervous system and back out 34
How sensory stimuli produce action potentials 34
How nerve impulses produce movement 34
Chapter 5 How do neurons communicate and adapt? 35
5.1 A chemical message 35
Structure of synapses 35
Neurotransmission in five steps 35
Varieties of synapses 37
Excitatory and inhibitory messages 37
5.2 Varieties of neurotransmitters and receptors 37
Four criteria for identifying neurotransmitters. 38
Classes of neurotransmitters 38
Postsynaptic receptor classes 39
, 5.3 Neurotransmitter systems and behaviour 40
Peripheral nervous system 40
Autonomic nervous system 40
Four activating systems in the central nervous system 40
5.4 Adaptive role of synapses in learning and memory 41
Chemical vs electrical synapses 41
Habituation (like ignoring ambient noise) 41
Sensitization (like PTSD) 41
Chapter 6 How do drugs and hormones influence brain and behaviour? 42
6.1 Principles of psychopharmacology 42
Drug administration routes 42
How are drugs eliminated by the body 42
Effects of drugs on the synapse 43
Tolerance 43
Sensitization 43
6.2 Psychoactive drugs 44
Psycholeptics: substances that inhibit psychological functions. 44
Psychoanaleptics: substances that stimulate psychological functions. 44
Psychodysleptics: substances that disorganize psychological functions. 45
6.3 Factors influencing individual responses to drugs 46
Why do people ‘on drugs’ behave the way they do? 46
Substance abuse vs addiction 46
Wanting-and-liking theory 46
Genetic contribution to differences in drug use 46
6.4 Hormones 47
Hierarchal control 47
Chemical classes of hormones 47
Functional groups of hormones 47
Chapter 7 How do we study the brain’s structures and functions? 48
7.1 Measuring and manipulating brain and behaviour 48
Manipulating brain-behavior interactions 48
7.2 Measuring the brain’s electrical activity 49
Recording action potentials from single cells 49
Electroencephalography (EEG) - graded potentials 49
Event-related potentials (ERPs) 49
Magnetoencephalography (MEG) 49
7.3 Anatomical imaging techniques: CT and MRI 51
Computed Tomography (CT) 51
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 51
Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) 51
Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) 51
7.4 Functional brain imaging 52
fMRI 52
, fNIRS 52
PET 52
Chapter 8 How does the nervous system develop and adapt? 53
8.1 Three perspectives on brain development 53
The three perspectives are: 53
8.2 Neurobiology of development 54
Gross development of the human nervous system 54
Formation of the neural tube 54
Origin of brain cells 54
Neuronal growth and development 55
8.3 Using emerging behaviours to infer neural maturation 57
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development 57
8.4 Brain development and the environment 58
Hormones 58
Experience and neural connectivity 58
Critical periods for experience and brain development 58
Chapter 9 How do we sense, perceive, and see the world? 60
9.1 Nature of sensation and perception 60
9.2 The visual system’s functional anatomy 61
Structure of the eye 61
The retina 61
Fovea and blind spot 61
Retinal neurons 61
The optic chiasm 62
Three routes to the visual brain 62
The occipital cortex 62
9.3 Location in the visual world 63
Receptive field 63
Location encoding 63
9.4 Neuronal activity 64
Shapes 64
Processing shapes in V1 64
Cell organization 65
Processing shapes in the temporal lobe (ventral stream) 65
Trichromatic theory (Helmholtz) 66
Opponent processes theory (Hering) 66
Vision beyond the primary visual cortex (V1) 66
9.5 Lesions in the temporal lobe 67
Visual agnosia (ventral stream, what) 67
Optic ataxia (dorsal stream, how) 67
Vision in the absence of the visual cortex 67
Chapter 10 How do we hear, speak, and make music? 68
10.1 Physical properties of sound 68
