Anatomy & Physiology
Preparatory Course Textbook
TeTeTextbook 2 Edition | 2021 nd
Carlos Liachovitzky
Bronx Community College of The City University of New York
,Table of Contents
About Anatomy and Physiology Preparatory Textbook .....................................6
UNIT 1 Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology ............................................7
MODULE 1: Levels of Organization of The Human Organism ............................7
Learning Objective 1: Describe, in order from simplest to most complex, the major levels
of organization in the human organism. ......................................................................................... 7
MODULE 2: What Is Human Anatomy, What Is Human Physiology ................. 11
Learning Objective 2: Define the terms anatomy and physiology, and give specific
examples to show the interrelationship between anatomy and physiology. ................................ 11
MODULE 3: Homeostasis and Control Systems............................................... 13
Learning Objective 3: Define homeostasis. ........................................................................ 13
Learning Objective 4: Define control system and describe its components. ...................... 14
Learning Objective 5: Define negative feedback and give one example using body
temperature. ................................................................................................................................. 16
Learning Objective 6: Define positive feedback and give one example; also, compare and
contrast positive and negative feedback in terms of the relationship between response and
result. ............................................................................................................................................ 18
UNIT 2 Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology Chemical Building Blocks
......................................................................................................................... 21
MODULE 4: Atoms ............................................................................................ 21
Learning Objective 7: Define the term atom and describe its structure in terms of location
and charge of its subatomic particles. .......................................................................................... 21
Learning Objective 8: Define the term element and distinguish between atom and
element. ........................................................................................................................................ 24
Learning Objective 9: Distinguish between the terms atomic number and mass number. 27
Learning Objective 10: Define isotope. ............................................................................... 30
Learning Objective 11: Describe the arrangement of electrons in atoms, define valence
electrons, and explain the octet rule. ........................................................................................... 32
Anatomy and Physiology Preparatory Course Textbook 2nd Ed. | Carlos Liachovitzky | CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
2
, Learning Objective 12: Define the terms ion, cation, anion, and electrolyte. ..................... 35
MODULE 5: Chemical Bonds ............................................................................ 37
Learning Objective 13: Define chemical bonding, molecules, salts and compounds; and
list three types of chemical bonds important for the study of human physiology. ....................... 37
Learning Objective 14: Define ionic bonds and describe how they form, and define salts.
...................................................................................................................................................... 39
Learning Objective 15: Define covalent bonds and describe how they form, and
differentiate between the two types of covalent bond. ................................................................. 41
MODULE 6: Water............................................................................................. 45
Learning Objective 16: Define hydrogen bonds and describe how they form. .................. 45
Learning Objective 17: Describe the behavior of ionic compounds when placed in water.
...................................................................................................................................................... 47
Learning Objective 18: Differentiate between hydrophobic and hydrophilic substances. . 48
Learning Objective 19: Define the terms solution, solvent, and solute. ............................ 49
MODULE 7: Acids and Bases ........................................................................... 51
Learning Objective 20: Define and differentiate the terms acid and base......................... 51
Learning Objective 21: Define the terms pH, neutral, acidic, and basic (or alkaline)........ 53
Learning Objective 22: Define the term buffer, and compare the response of a regular
solution with a buffer solution to the addition of acid or base. ..................................................... 56
UNIT 3 Molecular Level: Biomolecules, the Organic Compounds Associated
with Living Organisms ..................................................................................... 58
MODULE 8: Organic Compounds...................................................................... 58
Learning Objective 23: Define the terms organic compound and macromolecule, and list
the four groups of organic compounds found in living matter. ..................................................... 58
Learning Objective 24: Define functional groups and give examples. ............................... 62
MODULE 9: Chemical Reactions ...................................................................... 64
Learning Objective 25: Differentiate between substrate and product, and define chemical
equation. ....................................................................................................................................... 64
Anatomy and Physiology Preparatory Course Textbook 2nd Ed. | Carlos Liachovitzky | CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
3
, Learning Objective 26: Define metabolism, synthesis (anabolic), decomposition
(catabolic), and exchange reactions. ........................................................................................... 65
Learning Objective 27: Differentiate between reversible reactions and irreversible reactions.
...................................................................................................................................................... 67
Learning Objective 28: Explain dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions. ............. 68
Learning Objective 29: Explain the relationship between monomers and polymers......... 71
MODULE 10: Biomolecules Carbohydrates ................................................... 73
Learning Objective 30: Describe the general molecular structure of carbohydrates, and
identify their monomers and polymers; list the three subtypes of carbohydrates, and describe
their structure and function. .......................................................................................................... 73
MODULE 11: Biomolecules Lipids ................................................................. 79
Learning Objective 31: Describe the general chemical structure of lipids, list three
subtypes of lipids important in human functioning, and describe their structure and function. ... 79
MODULE 12: Biomolecules Proteins ............................................................. 85
Learning Objective 32: Describe the general chemical structure of proteins and identify
monomers and polymers; and list and explain functions proteins perform. ................................ 85
Learning Objective 33: Define conjugated protein, lipoprotein, glycosylated molecule,
glycoprotein, and glycolipid. ......................................................................................................... 91
Learning Objective 34: Define enzyme, enzymatic reaction, substrate, product, and active
site. ............................................................................................................................................... 93
MODULE 13: Biomolecules Nucleic Acids ..................................................... 95
Learning Objective 35: Describe the general chemical structure of nucleic acids, identify
monomers and polymers, and list the functions of RNA and DNA. ............................................. 95
Learning Objective 36: Explain the meaning of complementary base pairing. .................. 99
Learning Objective 37: Describe the structure and function of ATP in the cell. ............... 101
UNIT 4 Cellular Level: The Lowest Complexity Level of Living Things ..... 104
MODULE 14: Cell Structure and Function ...................................................... 104
Learning Objective 38: Define a cell, identify the main common components of human
cells, and differentiate between intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid. .................................. 104
Anatomy and Physiology Preparatory Course Textbook 2nd Ed. | Carlos Liachovitzky | CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
4
, Learning Objective 39: Describe the structure and functions of the cell membrane. ....... 106
Learning Objective 40: Describe the nucleus and its function.......................................... 109
Learning Objective 41: Describe the components of the cytoplasm and their functions. 111
Learning Objective 42: Identify the structure and function of cytoplasmic organelles. .... 112
MODULE 15: Protein Synthesis ...................................................................... 118
Learning Objective 43: Define protein synthesis and name its two parts......................... 118
Learning Objective 44: Define gene.................................................................................. 119
Learning Objective 45: List the three forms of ribonucleic acids (RNA). ......................... 120
Learning Objective 46: Explain the role of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) in protein synthesis. 121
Learning Objective 47: Define genetic code, and the term codon. ................................. 122
Learning Objective 48: Describe the structure of tRNA, define the term anticodon, and
explain the role of tRNA in protein synthesis. ............................................................................ 124
Learning Objective 49: Explain the role of mRNA in protein synthesis, and describe what
happens during transcription. ..................................................................................................... 126
Learning Objective 50: Describe what happens during translation. ................................. 129
Learning Objective 51: Discuss why protein synthesis is an important process. ............. 132
UNIT 5 Organ and Organ System Levels: The Highest Complexity Levels 133
MODULE 16: Organs and Systems of the Human Organism .......................... 133
Learning Objective 52: Define organ and organ system, and list the organ systems in the
human organism. ........................................................................................................................ 133
Learning Objective 53: Describe the functions of the organs systems, and list the main
organs of each system. .............................................................................................................. 135
Anatomy and Physiology Preparatory Course Textbook 2nd Ed. | Carlos Liachovitzky | CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
5
,About Anatomy and Physiology Preparatory Textbook
The goal of this preparatory textbook is to give students a chance to become familiar with some terms and some
basic concepts they will find later on in the Anatomy and Physiology course, especially during the first few weeks
of the course.
Organization and functioning of the human organism are generally presented starting from the simplest building
blocks, and then moving into levels of increasing complexity. This textbook follows the same presentation. It
begins introducing the concept of homeostasis, then covers the chemical level, and later on a basic introduction
to cellular level, organ level, and organ system level. This second edition incorporates a module on protein
synthesis, and a complementary base pairing learning objective as requested by many students. This edition
incorporates links to audios for all learning objectives, and many learning objectives have online videos
associated to them. Icons for audio by Kieselli and for video by Satheesh Sankaran, both from Pixabay.
The illustration on the cover is by Elisa Riva retrieved from Pixabay.
The textbook is organized in five UNITS, divided into sixteen MODULES covering a total of fifty-three Learning
Objectives. Each learning objective has a short self-assessment at the end.
Learning Objectives Content
1. The list of Learning Objectives (LO) is a derivative work of the Learning Outcomes Guidelines by The
Human Anatomy and Physiology Society (HAPS).
2. Important terms associated with each LO are shown in Arial Bold.
3. Etymology of some new terms is shown between brackets next to the term. The sources are The Free
Dictionary by Farlex, and The Online Etymology Dictionary.
4. Illustrations are under Creative Commons licenses, or in the Public Domain. Their sources are cited next
to them.
5. Tables compare terms, facts or concepts easier to visualize in a table format.
6. There are links to simulations, interactive activities and videos added to many learning objectives for this
second edition. They serve to summarize, and also to show some descriptions from the text in a different
way.
Assessment Content
1. Review Questions address terms, concepts and facts discussed within each learning objective. Most
questions are knowledge questions (Bloom’s taxonomy first level).
2. Tests are written in the format that students usually find in college exams (mostly multiple-choice questions,
with some true/false, and some fill in the blank). Test questions are a mix of knowledge, comprehension and
application questions (Bloom’s taxonomy first three levels).
Acknowledgments
Dr. Maureen Gannon contributed with the editing of the first edition and with the development of the question
bank. First online version the Preparatory Course was possible thanks to Bronx Community College Library
Open Education Resources Project.
Recommended Citation
Liachovitzky, Carlos, "Human Anatomy and Physiology Preparatory Course Textbook" (2021). CUNY
Academic Works. https://academicworks.cuny.edu/bx_oers/1
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 4.0 License.
Anatomy and Physiology Preparatory Course Textbook 2nd Ed. | Carlos Liachovitzky | CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
6
,UNIT 1 Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
MODULE 1: Levels of Organization of The Human Organism
Learning Objective 1: Describe, in order from simplest to most complex, the major
levels of organization in the human organism.
Listen to Learning Objective 1
All living and non-living things are made called organelles. There are many
of one or more unique substances called types of organelles, each with a particular
elements, the smallest unit of which is function (for example, organelles called
the atom, (for example, the element mitochondrion provides energy to a cell).
oxygen (O) is made of O atoms, carbon Different types of cells contain different
(C) is made of C atoms and hydrogen (H) amounts and types of organelles,
is made of H atoms. Atoms combine to depending on their function, (for example
form molecules. Molecules can be muscle cells use a lot of energy and
therefore have many mitochondria while
small (for example, O2, oxygen gas,
skin cells do not and have few
which has 2 atoms of the element O;
mitochondria).
CO2, carbon dioxide, which has 1 atom of
C and 2 of O), medium (for example, As in other multicellular organisms, cells
C6H12O6, glucose, which has 6 atoms of in the human body are organized into
C, 12 of H, and 6 of O); or large (for tissues. A tissue is a group of similar
example molecules called proteins are
cells that work together to perform a
made of hundreds of atoms of C, H, and
specific function. There are four main
O with other elements such as nitrogen
tissue types in humans (muscular,
(N). Molecules are the building blocks to
epithelial, nervous and connective). An
all structures in the human body.
organ is an identifiable structure of the
All living structures are made of cells, body composed of two or more tissues
which are made of many different types (for example, the stomach contains
molecules. Cells are the smallest muscular tissue made of muscle cells,
independent living thing in the human which allows it to change its shape,
body. The body is made of many different epithelial tissue which lines both the inner
cell types, each with a particular function, and outer surface of the stomach,
(for example muscle cells contract to nervous tissue which sends and receives
move something, and red blood cells signals to and from the stomach and the
carry oxygen). All human cells are made central nervous system, and connective
of a cell membrane (thin outer layer) that tissue which binds everything together).
encloses a jelly-like cellular fluid Organs often perform a specific
containing tiny organ-like structures physiological function (for example, the
Anatomy and Physiology Preparatory Course Textbook 2nd Ed. | Carlos Liachovitzky | CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
7
,stomach helps digest food). An organ systems that work together to perform
system is a group of organs that work the functions of an independent
individual.
together to perform a specific function
(for example, the stomach, small and Summarizing:
large intestines are all organs of the The major levels of organization in the
digestive system, that work together to body, from the simplest to the most
digest foodstuff, move nutrients into the complex are: atoms, molecules,
blood and get rid of waste). The most organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ
complex level of organization, the human systems and the human organism. See
organism is composed of many organ below Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1
Hierarchical levels of
organization of the
human body from the
smallest chemical level
to the largest
organismal level. Read
the description, and
examples for each level
in the pyramid:
Chemical level, Cellular
level, Tissue level,
Organ level, Organ
system level, and
Organismal level.
Art by OpenStax College CC-BY
Anatomy and Physiology Preparatory Course Textbook 2nd Ed. | Carlos Liachovitzky | CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
8
, Watch this video to review levels
of organization:
https://youtu.be/ZRFykdf4kDc
Review Questions for Learning Objective 1
Write your answer in a sentence form. (Do not answer using loose words)
1. What is an element? 7. What is an organ?
2. What is an atom? 8. What is an organ system?
3. What is a molecule? 9. What is an organism?
4. What is a cell? 10. What are the levels of organization in
5. What is an organelle? the human organism (list them from
6. What is a tissue? the smallest to the largest)?
Test for Learning Objective 1
1. This is the correct order of the major stomach, muscle cell,
levels of organization: mitochondrion, protein
a. Atom, molecule, cell, tissue, molecule, carbon atom
organ, organelle, organ b. Human body, digestive
system, organism system, stomach, muscle cell,
b. Atom, molecule, organelle, muscular tissue,
cell, tissue, organ, organ mitochondrion, protein
system, organism molecule, carbon atom
c. Atom, molecule, cell, tissue, c. Human body, digestive
organelle, organ, organ system, stomach, muscular
system, organism tissue, muscle cell,
d. Atom, molecule, cell, tissue, mitochondrion, protein
organism, organ, organelle, molecule, carbon atom
organ system d. Human body, digestive
system, stomach, muscular
2. This is the correct order of examples tissue, muscle cell,
of the major levels of organization mitochondrion, carbon atom,
(from most complex to least protein molecule
complex):
a. Human body, digestive
system, muscular tissue,
Anatomy and Physiology Preparatory Course Textbook 2nd Ed. | Carlos Liachovitzky | CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
9
, 3. A group of similar cells that work a. Organism
together to perform a specific b. Organelle
function is called a(an) ___. c. Organ system
a. Organ d. Organ
b. Tissue
c. Organelle 5. ___ are the smallest independent
d. Organ system living things in the human body.
a. Molecules
4. An ___ is an identifiable structure of b. Organelles
the body composed of two or more c. Cells
tissues. d. Organs
Anatomy and Physiology Preparatory Course Textbook 2nd Ed. | Carlos Liachovitzky | CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
10
Preparatory Course Textbook
TeTeTextbook 2 Edition | 2021 nd
Carlos Liachovitzky
Bronx Community College of The City University of New York
,Table of Contents
About Anatomy and Physiology Preparatory Textbook .....................................6
UNIT 1 Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology ............................................7
MODULE 1: Levels of Organization of The Human Organism ............................7
Learning Objective 1: Describe, in order from simplest to most complex, the major levels
of organization in the human organism. ......................................................................................... 7
MODULE 2: What Is Human Anatomy, What Is Human Physiology ................. 11
Learning Objective 2: Define the terms anatomy and physiology, and give specific
examples to show the interrelationship between anatomy and physiology. ................................ 11
MODULE 3: Homeostasis and Control Systems............................................... 13
Learning Objective 3: Define homeostasis. ........................................................................ 13
Learning Objective 4: Define control system and describe its components. ...................... 14
Learning Objective 5: Define negative feedback and give one example using body
temperature. ................................................................................................................................. 16
Learning Objective 6: Define positive feedback and give one example; also, compare and
contrast positive and negative feedback in terms of the relationship between response and
result. ............................................................................................................................................ 18
UNIT 2 Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology Chemical Building Blocks
......................................................................................................................... 21
MODULE 4: Atoms ............................................................................................ 21
Learning Objective 7: Define the term atom and describe its structure in terms of location
and charge of its subatomic particles. .......................................................................................... 21
Learning Objective 8: Define the term element and distinguish between atom and
element. ........................................................................................................................................ 24
Learning Objective 9: Distinguish between the terms atomic number and mass number. 27
Learning Objective 10: Define isotope. ............................................................................... 30
Learning Objective 11: Describe the arrangement of electrons in atoms, define valence
electrons, and explain the octet rule. ........................................................................................... 32
Anatomy and Physiology Preparatory Course Textbook 2nd Ed. | Carlos Liachovitzky | CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
2
, Learning Objective 12: Define the terms ion, cation, anion, and electrolyte. ..................... 35
MODULE 5: Chemical Bonds ............................................................................ 37
Learning Objective 13: Define chemical bonding, molecules, salts and compounds; and
list three types of chemical bonds important for the study of human physiology. ....................... 37
Learning Objective 14: Define ionic bonds and describe how they form, and define salts.
...................................................................................................................................................... 39
Learning Objective 15: Define covalent bonds and describe how they form, and
differentiate between the two types of covalent bond. ................................................................. 41
MODULE 6: Water............................................................................................. 45
Learning Objective 16: Define hydrogen bonds and describe how they form. .................. 45
Learning Objective 17: Describe the behavior of ionic compounds when placed in water.
...................................................................................................................................................... 47
Learning Objective 18: Differentiate between hydrophobic and hydrophilic substances. . 48
Learning Objective 19: Define the terms solution, solvent, and solute. ............................ 49
MODULE 7: Acids and Bases ........................................................................... 51
Learning Objective 20: Define and differentiate the terms acid and base......................... 51
Learning Objective 21: Define the terms pH, neutral, acidic, and basic (or alkaline)........ 53
Learning Objective 22: Define the term buffer, and compare the response of a regular
solution with a buffer solution to the addition of acid or base. ..................................................... 56
UNIT 3 Molecular Level: Biomolecules, the Organic Compounds Associated
with Living Organisms ..................................................................................... 58
MODULE 8: Organic Compounds...................................................................... 58
Learning Objective 23: Define the terms organic compound and macromolecule, and list
the four groups of organic compounds found in living matter. ..................................................... 58
Learning Objective 24: Define functional groups and give examples. ............................... 62
MODULE 9: Chemical Reactions ...................................................................... 64
Learning Objective 25: Differentiate between substrate and product, and define chemical
equation. ....................................................................................................................................... 64
Anatomy and Physiology Preparatory Course Textbook 2nd Ed. | Carlos Liachovitzky | CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
3
, Learning Objective 26: Define metabolism, synthesis (anabolic), decomposition
(catabolic), and exchange reactions. ........................................................................................... 65
Learning Objective 27: Differentiate between reversible reactions and irreversible reactions.
...................................................................................................................................................... 67
Learning Objective 28: Explain dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions. ............. 68
Learning Objective 29: Explain the relationship between monomers and polymers......... 71
MODULE 10: Biomolecules Carbohydrates ................................................... 73
Learning Objective 30: Describe the general molecular structure of carbohydrates, and
identify their monomers and polymers; list the three subtypes of carbohydrates, and describe
their structure and function. .......................................................................................................... 73
MODULE 11: Biomolecules Lipids ................................................................. 79
Learning Objective 31: Describe the general chemical structure of lipids, list three
subtypes of lipids important in human functioning, and describe their structure and function. ... 79
MODULE 12: Biomolecules Proteins ............................................................. 85
Learning Objective 32: Describe the general chemical structure of proteins and identify
monomers and polymers; and list and explain functions proteins perform. ................................ 85
Learning Objective 33: Define conjugated protein, lipoprotein, glycosylated molecule,
glycoprotein, and glycolipid. ......................................................................................................... 91
Learning Objective 34: Define enzyme, enzymatic reaction, substrate, product, and active
site. ............................................................................................................................................... 93
MODULE 13: Biomolecules Nucleic Acids ..................................................... 95
Learning Objective 35: Describe the general chemical structure of nucleic acids, identify
monomers and polymers, and list the functions of RNA and DNA. ............................................. 95
Learning Objective 36: Explain the meaning of complementary base pairing. .................. 99
Learning Objective 37: Describe the structure and function of ATP in the cell. ............... 101
UNIT 4 Cellular Level: The Lowest Complexity Level of Living Things ..... 104
MODULE 14: Cell Structure and Function ...................................................... 104
Learning Objective 38: Define a cell, identify the main common components of human
cells, and differentiate between intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid. .................................. 104
Anatomy and Physiology Preparatory Course Textbook 2nd Ed. | Carlos Liachovitzky | CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
4
, Learning Objective 39: Describe the structure and functions of the cell membrane. ....... 106
Learning Objective 40: Describe the nucleus and its function.......................................... 109
Learning Objective 41: Describe the components of the cytoplasm and their functions. 111
Learning Objective 42: Identify the structure and function of cytoplasmic organelles. .... 112
MODULE 15: Protein Synthesis ...................................................................... 118
Learning Objective 43: Define protein synthesis and name its two parts......................... 118
Learning Objective 44: Define gene.................................................................................. 119
Learning Objective 45: List the three forms of ribonucleic acids (RNA). ......................... 120
Learning Objective 46: Explain the role of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) in protein synthesis. 121
Learning Objective 47: Define genetic code, and the term codon. ................................. 122
Learning Objective 48: Describe the structure of tRNA, define the term anticodon, and
explain the role of tRNA in protein synthesis. ............................................................................ 124
Learning Objective 49: Explain the role of mRNA in protein synthesis, and describe what
happens during transcription. ..................................................................................................... 126
Learning Objective 50: Describe what happens during translation. ................................. 129
Learning Objective 51: Discuss why protein synthesis is an important process. ............. 132
UNIT 5 Organ and Organ System Levels: The Highest Complexity Levels 133
MODULE 16: Organs and Systems of the Human Organism .......................... 133
Learning Objective 52: Define organ and organ system, and list the organ systems in the
human organism. ........................................................................................................................ 133
Learning Objective 53: Describe the functions of the organs systems, and list the main
organs of each system. .............................................................................................................. 135
Anatomy and Physiology Preparatory Course Textbook 2nd Ed. | Carlos Liachovitzky | CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
5
,About Anatomy and Physiology Preparatory Textbook
The goal of this preparatory textbook is to give students a chance to become familiar with some terms and some
basic concepts they will find later on in the Anatomy and Physiology course, especially during the first few weeks
of the course.
Organization and functioning of the human organism are generally presented starting from the simplest building
blocks, and then moving into levels of increasing complexity. This textbook follows the same presentation. It
begins introducing the concept of homeostasis, then covers the chemical level, and later on a basic introduction
to cellular level, organ level, and organ system level. This second edition incorporates a module on protein
synthesis, and a complementary base pairing learning objective as requested by many students. This edition
incorporates links to audios for all learning objectives, and many learning objectives have online videos
associated to them. Icons for audio by Kieselli and for video by Satheesh Sankaran, both from Pixabay.
The illustration on the cover is by Elisa Riva retrieved from Pixabay.
The textbook is organized in five UNITS, divided into sixteen MODULES covering a total of fifty-three Learning
Objectives. Each learning objective has a short self-assessment at the end.
Learning Objectives Content
1. The list of Learning Objectives (LO) is a derivative work of the Learning Outcomes Guidelines by The
Human Anatomy and Physiology Society (HAPS).
2. Important terms associated with each LO are shown in Arial Bold.
3. Etymology of some new terms is shown between brackets next to the term. The sources are The Free
Dictionary by Farlex, and The Online Etymology Dictionary.
4. Illustrations are under Creative Commons licenses, or in the Public Domain. Their sources are cited next
to them.
5. Tables compare terms, facts or concepts easier to visualize in a table format.
6. There are links to simulations, interactive activities and videos added to many learning objectives for this
second edition. They serve to summarize, and also to show some descriptions from the text in a different
way.
Assessment Content
1. Review Questions address terms, concepts and facts discussed within each learning objective. Most
questions are knowledge questions (Bloom’s taxonomy first level).
2. Tests are written in the format that students usually find in college exams (mostly multiple-choice questions,
with some true/false, and some fill in the blank). Test questions are a mix of knowledge, comprehension and
application questions (Bloom’s taxonomy first three levels).
Acknowledgments
Dr. Maureen Gannon contributed with the editing of the first edition and with the development of the question
bank. First online version the Preparatory Course was possible thanks to Bronx Community College Library
Open Education Resources Project.
Recommended Citation
Liachovitzky, Carlos, "Human Anatomy and Physiology Preparatory Course Textbook" (2021). CUNY
Academic Works. https://academicworks.cuny.edu/bx_oers/1
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 4.0 License.
Anatomy and Physiology Preparatory Course Textbook 2nd Ed. | Carlos Liachovitzky | CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
6
,UNIT 1 Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
MODULE 1: Levels of Organization of The Human Organism
Learning Objective 1: Describe, in order from simplest to most complex, the major
levels of organization in the human organism.
Listen to Learning Objective 1
All living and non-living things are made called organelles. There are many
of one or more unique substances called types of organelles, each with a particular
elements, the smallest unit of which is function (for example, organelles called
the atom, (for example, the element mitochondrion provides energy to a cell).
oxygen (O) is made of O atoms, carbon Different types of cells contain different
(C) is made of C atoms and hydrogen (H) amounts and types of organelles,
is made of H atoms. Atoms combine to depending on their function, (for example
form molecules. Molecules can be muscle cells use a lot of energy and
therefore have many mitochondria while
small (for example, O2, oxygen gas,
skin cells do not and have few
which has 2 atoms of the element O;
mitochondria).
CO2, carbon dioxide, which has 1 atom of
C and 2 of O), medium (for example, As in other multicellular organisms, cells
C6H12O6, glucose, which has 6 atoms of in the human body are organized into
C, 12 of H, and 6 of O); or large (for tissues. A tissue is a group of similar
example molecules called proteins are
cells that work together to perform a
made of hundreds of atoms of C, H, and
specific function. There are four main
O with other elements such as nitrogen
tissue types in humans (muscular,
(N). Molecules are the building blocks to
epithelial, nervous and connective). An
all structures in the human body.
organ is an identifiable structure of the
All living structures are made of cells, body composed of two or more tissues
which are made of many different types (for example, the stomach contains
molecules. Cells are the smallest muscular tissue made of muscle cells,
independent living thing in the human which allows it to change its shape,
body. The body is made of many different epithelial tissue which lines both the inner
cell types, each with a particular function, and outer surface of the stomach,
(for example muscle cells contract to nervous tissue which sends and receives
move something, and red blood cells signals to and from the stomach and the
carry oxygen). All human cells are made central nervous system, and connective
of a cell membrane (thin outer layer) that tissue which binds everything together).
encloses a jelly-like cellular fluid Organs often perform a specific
containing tiny organ-like structures physiological function (for example, the
Anatomy and Physiology Preparatory Course Textbook 2nd Ed. | Carlos Liachovitzky | CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
7
,stomach helps digest food). An organ systems that work together to perform
system is a group of organs that work the functions of an independent
individual.
together to perform a specific function
(for example, the stomach, small and Summarizing:
large intestines are all organs of the The major levels of organization in the
digestive system, that work together to body, from the simplest to the most
digest foodstuff, move nutrients into the complex are: atoms, molecules,
blood and get rid of waste). The most organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ
complex level of organization, the human systems and the human organism. See
organism is composed of many organ below Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1
Hierarchical levels of
organization of the
human body from the
smallest chemical level
to the largest
organismal level. Read
the description, and
examples for each level
in the pyramid:
Chemical level, Cellular
level, Tissue level,
Organ level, Organ
system level, and
Organismal level.
Art by OpenStax College CC-BY
Anatomy and Physiology Preparatory Course Textbook 2nd Ed. | Carlos Liachovitzky | CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
8
, Watch this video to review levels
of organization:
https://youtu.be/ZRFykdf4kDc
Review Questions for Learning Objective 1
Write your answer in a sentence form. (Do not answer using loose words)
1. What is an element? 7. What is an organ?
2. What is an atom? 8. What is an organ system?
3. What is a molecule? 9. What is an organism?
4. What is a cell? 10. What are the levels of organization in
5. What is an organelle? the human organism (list them from
6. What is a tissue? the smallest to the largest)?
Test for Learning Objective 1
1. This is the correct order of the major stomach, muscle cell,
levels of organization: mitochondrion, protein
a. Atom, molecule, cell, tissue, molecule, carbon atom
organ, organelle, organ b. Human body, digestive
system, organism system, stomach, muscle cell,
b. Atom, molecule, organelle, muscular tissue,
cell, tissue, organ, organ mitochondrion, protein
system, organism molecule, carbon atom
c. Atom, molecule, cell, tissue, c. Human body, digestive
organelle, organ, organ system, stomach, muscular
system, organism tissue, muscle cell,
d. Atom, molecule, cell, tissue, mitochondrion, protein
organism, organ, organelle, molecule, carbon atom
organ system d. Human body, digestive
system, stomach, muscular
2. This is the correct order of examples tissue, muscle cell,
of the major levels of organization mitochondrion, carbon atom,
(from most complex to least protein molecule
complex):
a. Human body, digestive
system, muscular tissue,
Anatomy and Physiology Preparatory Course Textbook 2nd Ed. | Carlos Liachovitzky | CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
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, 3. A group of similar cells that work a. Organism
together to perform a specific b. Organelle
function is called a(an) ___. c. Organ system
a. Organ d. Organ
b. Tissue
c. Organelle 5. ___ are the smallest independent
d. Organ system living things in the human body.
a. Molecules
4. An ___ is an identifiable structure of b. Organelles
the body composed of two or more c. Cells
tissues. d. Organs
Anatomy and Physiology Preparatory Course Textbook 2nd Ed. | Carlos Liachovitzky | CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
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