PATH2220 Final Exam - Learning
outcome-based Correct 100%
define key terms associated with the pathological basis of disease such as disease,
aetiology, pathogenesis - ANSWER Disease = abnormal condition where normal
function (homeostasis) of body part/organ is disturbed
Aetiology = cause of disease/condition (inherited/acquired)
Pathogenesis = manner of development of disease - cellular events / changes /
reactions caused by aetiology that alter normal cellular processes
describe the different methods used to recognise pathological features of disease
(levels of examination) - ANSWER -Macroscopic
-Microscopic
-Ultrastructural (sub-cellular - organelles; electron microscope)
-Genetic / molecular (chromosomes, nucleic acid)
-Functional (cellular function)
describe the pathology testing cycle - ANSWER 1. Pre-analytic - specimen checked
against request form
2. Analytic / testing - sample processed, controls, audit
3. Post-analytic - pathologist validates results, reported back to requesting doctor,
feedback
demonstrate understanding of the different disciplines of pathology and the role they
play in the diagnosis and classification of human disease - ANSWER -Anatomical -
histopathology, cytopathology, electron microscopy, molecular pathology
-Chemical / biochemical
-Haematology
-Genetic
-Immunology
-Microbiology
-Forensic
view photographed microscopy slides and make a judgement about what type of
sample is on the slide and how it might have been prepared (5 steps in preparing
sample - blood vs cells vs tissue) - ANSWER 1. Acquire sample: blood (venepuncture),
cells (body fluids, FNA, tissue scrape), tissue (core biopsy, wide local excision, entire
organ)
2. Process sample (if necessary) - blood (whole blood vs WBC prep), cells
(concentration by centrifugation), tissue (fix in formalin & embed in wax, freeze)
,3. Transfer to slide - blood (blood smear, cytospin if WBC), cells (smear, cytospin),
tissues (cut with microtome / cryostat)
4. Stain - blood (Diff quik, Giemsa, wright), cells (Papanicolau), tissues (H&E, special
stain, immunohistochemistry)
5. Analyse by microscopy
choose appropriate preparation methods for different types of samples depending on
the purpose for analysis - ANSWER *See screenshots
describe the composition and functions of blood - ANSWER Components: cellular =
erythrocytes, leukocytes (granulocytes, lymphocytes, monocytes), thrombocytes (cell
fragments of megakaryotes), extracellular matrix = plasma
*Serum = identical to plasma except no fibrinogen
Functions of RBCs: transfer O2 from lungs to tissues / CO2 from tissues to lungs
Functions of WBCs: respond to foreign substances, inflammatory & immune responses
Functions of plasma: albumin (transport), antibodies (immune), fibrinogen (clotting)
Functions of platelets: release serotonin -> constricts BVs, stick to exposed collagen
fibres on broken BVs -> temporary plug, enmeshed in fibrin -> healing
recognise normal blood cells on photographed microscopy slides - ANSWER -
Erythrocyte - no nucleus, central area of pallor
-Neutrophils - 3 lobes (most dominant WBC type)
-Eosinophils - 2 lobes, orange/pink granules
-Basophils - dark granules that hide nucleus (least dominant)
-Lymphocytes - large round nucleus, no granules
-Monocytes - horseshoe nucleus, largest cell
-Thrombocytes - small fragments, no nucleus
describe the role of stem cells and bone marrow in the production of blood - ANSWER
Haemopoiesis = production of blood cells
Haemopoietic tissues = produce blood cells from stem cells
(yolk sac in embryo -> liver, spleen -> bone marrow)
Haemopoietic stem cells = stem cells that can only produce blood cells
-> Myeloid lineage: RBCs, platelets, mast cells, granulocytes, monocytes (macrophages
/ dendritic cells)
-> Lymphoid lineage: NK cells, T & B cells
,define anaemia and demonstrate understanding of the causes of anaemia - ANSWER
Anaemia = reduction in oxygen-transporting capacity (haemoglobin concentration) of
blood - due to decreased RBC mass
Symptoms: shortness of breath, organ failure, shock, pallor, fatigue
3 main causes:
-Increased RBC destruction - hereditary / autoimmune haemolytic anaemia
-Decreased RBC production - primary: aplastic anaemia (bone marrow failure),
myelodysplasia (bone marrow dysfunction), secondary: iron deficiency anaemia, other
nutrient deficiency, infection, drugs, leukaemia / metastasised cancer
-Blood loss - haemorrhage
describe features of anaemic conditions including, reduced and defective production,
particularly iron deficiency; and increased destruction or loss, particularly haemolytic
anaemia - ANSWER Iron deficiency anaemia - dietary iron required for RBC production
Without:
-Area of central pallor increases = hypochromic
-Smaller (low MCV) = microcytic
Vit B12 deficiency -> pernicious / megaloblastic anaemia
-Macrocytic RBCs
-Hypersegmented neutrophils
Inherited haemolytic anaemia - hereditary spherocytosis, thalassaemia
Autoimmune (acquired) haemolytic anaemia - immune system attacks RBCs
-Spherocytes (no area central pallor)
Can also develop haemolytic anaemia due to:
-Infections: bacterial sepsis, malaria, clostridium welchii -> fragmented RBCs
-Severe burns -> small, contracted RBCs
Haemorrhage - no visible change on blood smear (normochromic, normocytic), but FBC
shows low no. RBCs & low Hb
describe features of common reactive leukocytic disorders, particularly those caused by
bacterial and viral infections - ANSWER -cytosis / -philia = increased no.
-cytopenia = decreased no.
-Neutrophilia - very common: infection, fever, inflammation, stress, drugs -> immature
neutrophils in blood, toxic granulation (granules increase)
-Neutropenia - congenital, drugs, infections, bone marrow failure
-Lymphocytosis - common after viral infections -> altered morphology (increased size,
irregular nuclei, extending cytoplasm, dark staining periphery)
-Monocytosis - uncommon: chronic infection (tuberculosis, malaria)
-Eosinophilia - allergy, parasite infections, drugs
-Basophilia - very rare (CML) -> fewer granules, visible nucleus
, define leukaemia and differentiate between acute and chronic leukaemias, and
lymphoid and myeloid leukaemias - ANSWER Leukaemia = uncontrolled proliferation
(larger proportion) of WBCs with underlying clonal defect (all cells fairly identical)
-Acute = early precursor ('blast' cells) fails to differentiate, poor prognosis, curable with
treatment
-Chronic = mature, differentiated cells, usually incurable
-Lymphoid (ALL) - smaller cells, large nucleus, children
-Myeloid (AML) - larger cells, small nucleus, adults
-CLL - elderly, B cells
-CML - middle-aged, treatment with imatinib
describe blood banking procedures including the eligibility requirements of blood donors
in Australia - ANSWER -Aged 18-75
-Above 45kg
-Not iron deficient / low iron
-Not had tattoo in last 4 months
-Not pregnant / given birth in last 9 months
-No heart conditions
-Haven't engaged in 'at risk' sexual activity in last 3 months
-Haven't done IV recreational drugs in last 5 years
-Haven't travelled overseas in past 4 months
1. Eligibility / wellbeing questionnaire
2. Hb checked
3. 470mL donated (can donate every 3 months)
4. Blood tested for infections, ABO & Rh blood group
apply knowledge of A, B and O and Rhesus (Rh) blood groups to interpret blood typing
results (including gel cards) - ANSWER Tubes contain different antibodies: A, B, D
(Rhesus)
If patient's blood contains antibodies -> agglutination
-> Centrifuged
+ve = top of tube
-ve = bottom
choose which blood groups are suitable for a transfusion recipient of known blood type -
ANSWER AB = universal recipient
O = universal donor
describe the different types of blood products available for transfusion and their
indications and risks - ANSWER Blood products:
-Packed red cells - for acute blood loss, symptomatic anaemia
outcome-based Correct 100%
define key terms associated with the pathological basis of disease such as disease,
aetiology, pathogenesis - ANSWER Disease = abnormal condition where normal
function (homeostasis) of body part/organ is disturbed
Aetiology = cause of disease/condition (inherited/acquired)
Pathogenesis = manner of development of disease - cellular events / changes /
reactions caused by aetiology that alter normal cellular processes
describe the different methods used to recognise pathological features of disease
(levels of examination) - ANSWER -Macroscopic
-Microscopic
-Ultrastructural (sub-cellular - organelles; electron microscope)
-Genetic / molecular (chromosomes, nucleic acid)
-Functional (cellular function)
describe the pathology testing cycle - ANSWER 1. Pre-analytic - specimen checked
against request form
2. Analytic / testing - sample processed, controls, audit
3. Post-analytic - pathologist validates results, reported back to requesting doctor,
feedback
demonstrate understanding of the different disciplines of pathology and the role they
play in the diagnosis and classification of human disease - ANSWER -Anatomical -
histopathology, cytopathology, electron microscopy, molecular pathology
-Chemical / biochemical
-Haematology
-Genetic
-Immunology
-Microbiology
-Forensic
view photographed microscopy slides and make a judgement about what type of
sample is on the slide and how it might have been prepared (5 steps in preparing
sample - blood vs cells vs tissue) - ANSWER 1. Acquire sample: blood (venepuncture),
cells (body fluids, FNA, tissue scrape), tissue (core biopsy, wide local excision, entire
organ)
2. Process sample (if necessary) - blood (whole blood vs WBC prep), cells
(concentration by centrifugation), tissue (fix in formalin & embed in wax, freeze)
,3. Transfer to slide - blood (blood smear, cytospin if WBC), cells (smear, cytospin),
tissues (cut with microtome / cryostat)
4. Stain - blood (Diff quik, Giemsa, wright), cells (Papanicolau), tissues (H&E, special
stain, immunohistochemistry)
5. Analyse by microscopy
choose appropriate preparation methods for different types of samples depending on
the purpose for analysis - ANSWER *See screenshots
describe the composition and functions of blood - ANSWER Components: cellular =
erythrocytes, leukocytes (granulocytes, lymphocytes, monocytes), thrombocytes (cell
fragments of megakaryotes), extracellular matrix = plasma
*Serum = identical to plasma except no fibrinogen
Functions of RBCs: transfer O2 from lungs to tissues / CO2 from tissues to lungs
Functions of WBCs: respond to foreign substances, inflammatory & immune responses
Functions of plasma: albumin (transport), antibodies (immune), fibrinogen (clotting)
Functions of platelets: release serotonin -> constricts BVs, stick to exposed collagen
fibres on broken BVs -> temporary plug, enmeshed in fibrin -> healing
recognise normal blood cells on photographed microscopy slides - ANSWER -
Erythrocyte - no nucleus, central area of pallor
-Neutrophils - 3 lobes (most dominant WBC type)
-Eosinophils - 2 lobes, orange/pink granules
-Basophils - dark granules that hide nucleus (least dominant)
-Lymphocytes - large round nucleus, no granules
-Monocytes - horseshoe nucleus, largest cell
-Thrombocytes - small fragments, no nucleus
describe the role of stem cells and bone marrow in the production of blood - ANSWER
Haemopoiesis = production of blood cells
Haemopoietic tissues = produce blood cells from stem cells
(yolk sac in embryo -> liver, spleen -> bone marrow)
Haemopoietic stem cells = stem cells that can only produce blood cells
-> Myeloid lineage: RBCs, platelets, mast cells, granulocytes, monocytes (macrophages
/ dendritic cells)
-> Lymphoid lineage: NK cells, T & B cells
,define anaemia and demonstrate understanding of the causes of anaemia - ANSWER
Anaemia = reduction in oxygen-transporting capacity (haemoglobin concentration) of
blood - due to decreased RBC mass
Symptoms: shortness of breath, organ failure, shock, pallor, fatigue
3 main causes:
-Increased RBC destruction - hereditary / autoimmune haemolytic anaemia
-Decreased RBC production - primary: aplastic anaemia (bone marrow failure),
myelodysplasia (bone marrow dysfunction), secondary: iron deficiency anaemia, other
nutrient deficiency, infection, drugs, leukaemia / metastasised cancer
-Blood loss - haemorrhage
describe features of anaemic conditions including, reduced and defective production,
particularly iron deficiency; and increased destruction or loss, particularly haemolytic
anaemia - ANSWER Iron deficiency anaemia - dietary iron required for RBC production
Without:
-Area of central pallor increases = hypochromic
-Smaller (low MCV) = microcytic
Vit B12 deficiency -> pernicious / megaloblastic anaemia
-Macrocytic RBCs
-Hypersegmented neutrophils
Inherited haemolytic anaemia - hereditary spherocytosis, thalassaemia
Autoimmune (acquired) haemolytic anaemia - immune system attacks RBCs
-Spherocytes (no area central pallor)
Can also develop haemolytic anaemia due to:
-Infections: bacterial sepsis, malaria, clostridium welchii -> fragmented RBCs
-Severe burns -> small, contracted RBCs
Haemorrhage - no visible change on blood smear (normochromic, normocytic), but FBC
shows low no. RBCs & low Hb
describe features of common reactive leukocytic disorders, particularly those caused by
bacterial and viral infections - ANSWER -cytosis / -philia = increased no.
-cytopenia = decreased no.
-Neutrophilia - very common: infection, fever, inflammation, stress, drugs -> immature
neutrophils in blood, toxic granulation (granules increase)
-Neutropenia - congenital, drugs, infections, bone marrow failure
-Lymphocytosis - common after viral infections -> altered morphology (increased size,
irregular nuclei, extending cytoplasm, dark staining periphery)
-Monocytosis - uncommon: chronic infection (tuberculosis, malaria)
-Eosinophilia - allergy, parasite infections, drugs
-Basophilia - very rare (CML) -> fewer granules, visible nucleus
, define leukaemia and differentiate between acute and chronic leukaemias, and
lymphoid and myeloid leukaemias - ANSWER Leukaemia = uncontrolled proliferation
(larger proportion) of WBCs with underlying clonal defect (all cells fairly identical)
-Acute = early precursor ('blast' cells) fails to differentiate, poor prognosis, curable with
treatment
-Chronic = mature, differentiated cells, usually incurable
-Lymphoid (ALL) - smaller cells, large nucleus, children
-Myeloid (AML) - larger cells, small nucleus, adults
-CLL - elderly, B cells
-CML - middle-aged, treatment with imatinib
describe blood banking procedures including the eligibility requirements of blood donors
in Australia - ANSWER -Aged 18-75
-Above 45kg
-Not iron deficient / low iron
-Not had tattoo in last 4 months
-Not pregnant / given birth in last 9 months
-No heart conditions
-Haven't engaged in 'at risk' sexual activity in last 3 months
-Haven't done IV recreational drugs in last 5 years
-Haven't travelled overseas in past 4 months
1. Eligibility / wellbeing questionnaire
2. Hb checked
3. 470mL donated (can donate every 3 months)
4. Blood tested for infections, ABO & Rh blood group
apply knowledge of A, B and O and Rhesus (Rh) blood groups to interpret blood typing
results (including gel cards) - ANSWER Tubes contain different antibodies: A, B, D
(Rhesus)
If patient's blood contains antibodies -> agglutination
-> Centrifuged
+ve = top of tube
-ve = bottom
choose which blood groups are suitable for a transfusion recipient of known blood type -
ANSWER AB = universal recipient
O = universal donor
describe the different types of blood products available for transfusion and their
indications and risks - ANSWER Blood products:
-Packed red cells - for acute blood loss, symptomatic anaemia
