History of international relations
IMPORTANT INFORMATION OF THE COURSE
Information on the exam
- You are allowed to bring a dictionary that translates the words directly.
- The exam may be completed in English or Dutch, but it must be entirely in the chosen
language.
Sample exam questions
1. First type of question
→ 5 questions
→ You have 3 to 4 lines, so focus on the essentials
§ When
→ Place in the century, no exact date
§ Significance
§ Who/what
Example question: Shortly situate the following events, concepts and people in their historical
context and shortly explain their historical significance.
→ Zheng He
→ Benin bronze
2. Second type of question
→ You get 4 questions, but you only need to answer 3.
Example question: Choose three from the four questions in section B. Do not answer all the four
questions. If you answer all the four questions, I will only grade questions 1-2/3.
→ Why was the Warring States period such a culturally dynamic period in Chinese history?
3. Third type of question: essay question
→ For the essay question, you need to draw evidence from various lectures. Weigh the
evidence for and against, use analytical language, present the evidence, then weigh it, and
conclude.
→ 2 pages long.
→ Analytical (ppt) → argue (book) → reflect (articles)
Example question: What has been the role of religion in international relations? And how has that
role developed?
Handy tip
At the end of the textbook, there are questions, some of which he includes on the exam.
1
, LECTURE 1: Introduction
1. History of international relations: why?
WHY IS IT USEFUL FOR SOCIAL SCIENTISTS TO STUDY HISTORY?
1. Historical legacies
→ Historical legacies refer to the lasting influence of past events, systems, or structures on a
society, even after those events or systems have officially ended. These legacies shape
behaviors, norms, institutions, etc. Often continuing to affect a society for many years.
→ Example: Poland, having experienced decades under communist rule, continues to feel
the effects of that period even after transitioning to a democratic system.
2. The politics of historical memories
→ You can’t know the other, but you can try to get to know the other by learning their
history. So, you can understand their political and diplomatic behavior. You don’t have to
accept them; you must know what they are motivated by to understand their behavior.
→ Example: Kiev and Russian foreign policy claims
3. The contingency of moral ideas and social arrangements
→ When you study the past and organizations, you get confronted with different social
arrangements and moral ideas.
→ Examples: Gender equality, natural slavery and sovereignty
4. (Lessons from history)
→ Some may say that history repeats itself, but other will say that we must be careful
because we don’t know if it is the same situation.
Political memories
- All memories are selective
→ You may forget things on purpose, because you don’t want to remember them. It’s a
choice.
- Governments and activists will tell their own story
2. History of international relations: what?
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AS A SCHOLARLY DISCIPLINE IS ‘PRESENTIST’
Presentist means that researchers and academics often use current circumstances or perspectives to
analyze historical events, without sufficiently considering the specific context of that time.
Presentists believe that international relations began with events like the First World War. However,
this perspective is not right, as international relations existed long before that conflict. International
relations are not limited to wartime; they also encompass diplomatic, economic, and cultural
interactions that have occurred throughout history.
2
,INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AS A SCHOLARLY DISCIPLINE IS ‘EUROCENTRIC’
Eurocentric means that the theories and analyses often stem from a European perspective, using
the history, politics, and economy of Europe as the norm or standard to understand other regions
and their development.
We must be mindful that there are both European and non-European experiences. It’s important to
recognize that there are two types of experiences, and not just the European perspective should be
considered.
IS IT A PROBLEM THAT INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AS A DISCIPLINE BETRAYS A
‘PRESENTIST’ AND A ‘EUROCENTRIC BIAS’?
1. Non-European powers are re-asserting themselves
→ Historical legacies
→ Historical memory
2. What is the logic of the international system?
→ Contingency of present arrangements: Basic unit (sate), social practices (borders, flags),
rules and norms (equality) and implications (violence)
3
, LECTURE 2: China and east Asia
It was possible for Japan to isolate itself from China, it was possible for geographic reasons.
1. Introduction: what is China?
WHAT IS CHINA AND WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO IDENTIFY A ‘CHINESE’ INTERNATIONAL
SYSTEM?
- What China is not: a nation-state
§ Imperial dynasties with pretence of being the ‘middle kingdom’ (zhongguo)
→ There were a number of imperial dynasties, they all claimed to be the ‘middle
kingdom’. They didn’t refer to themselves as Chinese, they all had names and called
themselves the ‘middle kingdom’.
§ A civilizational zone sharing in a set of ritual practices
→ Within that geography space with different dynasties they all shared a set of ritual
practices, also there was a shared political vocabulary and how a political system
should be ruled. It remains a Mandat only. A dynasty could fall, and it would allow
the citizens to work for another dynasty. Confucianism was used by many imperial
dynasties as the official ideology, but not all dynasties were originally of Chinese
origin (such as the Manchu dynasty). These dynasties adopted Confucian practices to
strengthen their legitimacy.
- What is does not mean to identify a Chinese international system: encompassing,
unchanging, unquestionably Confucian
§ Overland system
→ Organized relations between China and Mongol tribes or the West and North. It
adopted little from Confucianism.
§ Tribute system
→ Organized relations between China and South and East. It adopted much from
Confucianism.
China was not dominant, there would be times China did dominate, but on the other hand China
was also dominated by other. Confucianism did influence some rules and cultures, but not
constantly.
2. The ‘warring states period’
4
,475 – 251 BCE
- Intense competition, including military competition
→ In this context, we see all the expected dynamics of such an environment: intense
competition among states, territorial disputes, and alliances aimed at preventing the
dominance of any single state. This fierce military rivalry is why it’s often referred to not
just as a period of independent states, but as one of warring states. With multiple states and
no overarching authority, the result is recurring, if not constant, warfare.
- Qin appear to achieve dominance, other ‘polities’ must respond
→ At a certain point, the state of Qin seemed poised to achieve dominance, forcing other
states to decide how to respond. They had to consider what kind of military apparatus to
develop, whether to form alliances against Qin, and with which states to ally. Should they
fully commit to these alliances, or treat them opportunistically? These timeless questions of
foreign policy were just as relevant then as they are today.
There were a lot of independent states, there was no authority above them. That led to intense
competition and even military competition. They all want to achieve dominance, and they want to
see how the other states will respond to that.
- Book: Sunzi, The Art of War
- Underlines the importance of intelligence, subterfuge and dissimulation
It was a book about war. It was very popular book in this period, because all the independent states
want to know as much as possible about war. To dominate other independent states and see how the
other states will respond to that.
THE WARRING STATES PERIOD WAS A PERIOD OF INTENSE AND OFTEN VIOLENT
POLITICAL-MILITARY COMPETITION, AND YET IT WAS A PERIOD IN WHICH CHINA
FLOURISHED. HOW IS THIS POSSIBLE?
Military competition creates new technologies to be one step ahead of the other. To create new
technologies, you need to invest in your economy. Therefore, you need to make the taxation as easy
as possible. The administration must be good, to make the taxation easier.
- Political competition spurred economic development
- Political competition spurred intellectual creativity
There will be a progress of multiple intellectual schools:
- Kongzi/Confucianism: Proper conduct within hierarchical, personal relations
→ Confucius taught that virtue/behavior is more important than laws because moral virtue is
the foundation of lawful behavior. Virtue must be instilled in everyone, from the people to
the rulers. He also believed society should be understood as a network of hierarchical
relationships, like between a father and child, or a ruler and subjects. To maintain harmony,
individuals must act according to their role within these relationships, with subordinates,
such as children or subjects, showing obedience to those in authority.
5
, - Daoism
- Fajia/Legalism: Ruthless pursuit of state interests; role of law therein, but ruler above
law, certainly in foreign affairs
→ Moral virtue means nothing compared to Confucianism. A ruler should be above the law.
If you break the law, you must be severely punished. According to Legalism, this is the only
way to govern and maintain dominance over the citizens.
3. The development of the Chinese state
‘China’ was ruled over by a succession of imperial dynasties. The was no such thing as a Chinese
empire.
- Plenty of struggle and competition
- Not every dynasty was of Chinese origin
- Yet also myriad elements of continuity
§ In cultural terms
→ Confucianism didn’t suddenly emerge as the dominant philosophy; it was adopted
early on as the official state ideology. While not all political behavior can be
explained by Confucianism, the state identified itself as Confucian, even if it didn’t
always act accordingly. Civil servants were expected to study and be familiar with
Confucian teachings. This continued throughout most of the imperial period, with
Confucianism remaining the official ideology, with some exceptions, like the
Mongol dynasty. However, even later dynasties, such as the Manchu dynasty, still
identified themselves as Confucian imperial dynasties.
§ In terms of political organization
→ All those imperial dynasties will claim the Mandat of heaven. Once the transition
to a new dynasty was fully established, subjects, primarily the elites, would accept
that the new dynasty held this mandate, legitimizing their rule. However, this
legitimacy cannot be taken for granted, as they often seized power through violent
means. To reestablish their legitimacy, they would claim the Mandate of Heaven and
seek the acceptance of others that they possessed it.
HAN DYNASTY (206 BCE (bofore the common era) – 220 CE)
- Establishment of professional administration
→ By taxing main commodities (example: salt)
- Adoption of Confucianism as state philosophy
- Organization of society and economy
→ Roads, canals, coins
→ They build roads and canals. They also decide to mint coins, so can trading be controlled
and trading will also be easier. They tax salt, but they also tax liquor.
- Military engagement with Xiongnu Federation
6
,The Silk roads
= A dense network of trade routes facilitated the long-distance transport of goods. Only luxury
goods were traded. Merchants would travel to a certain point, where the luxury goods were
transferred to another vehicle, making multiple stops with various traders along the way. It could
sometimes take up to 15 merchants for the goods to reach their final destination. As people and
goods traveled, ideas also spread and made their way into China. The Silk Roads were crucial for
spreading ideas like Buddhism.
Han dynasty = “Sogdian letter” [small states in world politics]
→ The Han dynasty valued the Silk Roads, but they did not manage or establish them. The Silk
Roads developed organically, becoming the typical routes taken by traders. People felt a sense of
responsibility for these roads due to the numerous robbers that frequented them. They managed the
routes by creating resting points and checking documents, among other measures.
TANG DYNASTY (618-907 CE)
- Entrance examinations (meritocracy)
→ The Tang dynasty formalized this requirement and stated that it was not just when
someone was a civil servant that they should start learning to read the Confucian classes, but
before becoming a civil servant, they ought to be deeply familiar with the Confucian classes.
- China spreads its cultural influence
→ What happens at this time because of China achieving this aura of cultural prominence is
that neighboring countries start to become impressed by China. They begin adopting
Chinese cultural artifacts, introducing Confucianism, and embracing Confucianism. They
start talking about political authority in their particular regions in terms of the mandate of
heaven.
- China shows itself open to foreign influences
→ example: Xuanzang (Buddhist monk)
→ One indication that China is not yet self-absorbed is that it is still open to foreign
influence. The story of this monk illustrates this. He traveled to India, and the reason for him
to travel to India was that he sensed that they did not have a proper understanding of things.
He spent 13 years learning from all kinds of Buddhist scholars and monks. When he
returned to China, the Tang dynasty decided to sponsor a center of Buddhist learning.
SONG DYNASTY (960-1279)
- Era of major technological achievement
→ This is an era of technological achievement. Gunpowder is invented at this time, a
Chinese invention during the Song dynasty. The Song dynasty is a time when urban culture
develops very strongly in China, creating an extremely cosmopolitan urban culture.
7
, - Era of great military challenges, especially from nomadic polities
→ The Song dynasty faced extremely serious geopolitical challenges. These challenges did
not come from other sedentary states but from nomadic polities. There were two nomadic
groups that attacked them: the Jurchens and the Mongols. The Jurchens managed to defeat
the Song and forced the Song dynasty to move their capital from Kaifeng in the north to
Guangzhou in the south. These nomads were formidable military opponents for the Song
dynasty. Some 100 years later, the Song dynasty was attacked by the Mongols under the
command of Kublai Khan, a Mongol leader. The Song dynasty ceased to exist, and the Yuan
dynasty was established by Kublai Khan.
YUAN DYNASTY (1271-1368)
- Of Mongolic origin (Kublai Khan)
→ The Yuan dynasty did not last long because Kublai Khan was not a good leader.
MING DYNASTY (1368-1644)
- Porcelain vases & luxurious gardens
§ Explanation: The Ming dynasty is known for its art and culture, such as porcelain
and garden architecture. These luxuries symbolized the wealth and cultural prestige
of the empire.
§ Text (Link with Zheng He): The Zheng He voyages contributed to cultural exchange
and trade, leading to the import of exotic goods, including luxury items such as
porcelain. Through these voyages, China was able to expand its cl influence and
welcome new ideas and products.
- ‘Great wall of China’ and Zheng He voyages
§ Explanation: The Great Wall was built as a defense line against nomadic groups
coming from the north. This reflects the Ming dynasty's concerns about invasions
and the preservation of their territorial integrity.
§ Text (Link with Zheng He): Although the Great Wall is a symbol of isolation, the
voyages of Zheng He were a way to expand Chinese influence abroad. These two
contrasts illustrate the complex dynamics of Ming diplomacy, as they simultaneously
withdrew behind physical defenses and explored the world through maritime
expeditions.
It’s known for isolationist dynasty. Is the dynasty who build the great wall of China, it doesn’t exist
only a lot of separate walls. It was an attempt to keep out the nomadic groups.
8
,The Zheng he voyages
- Brings a ‘giraffe’ to Beijing
§ Explanation: During his voyages, Zheng He brought a giraffe to Beijing, a symbol of
the exotic wealth and cultural exchange that took place. This highlights the prestige
of the Ming dynasty and their connections with other countries.
§ Text (Link with Zheng He): The giraffe represents the successes of Zheng He’s
expeditions, as they brought not only goods but also curiosities and wonders from
other countries to China. This fits into the broader context of cultural and
commercial exchange.
- Come a to an abrupt end (causes of the stopping)
§ Explanation: The voyages of Zheng He ended abruptly, especially after the death of
Emperor Yongle. There were arguments that the expeditions were too costly, and
that attention needed to be focused more inward.
§ Text (Link with Zheng He): This aligns with Wade's remark that the voyages, despite
their impact, were not sustained by the Ming dynasty. The death of Yongle resulted
in a shift in priorities towards a more isolationist approach, as seen in the later focus
on defending the borders.
- Subject of historiographical controversy
§ ‘Journeys of exploration and trade’ (E. Ringmar)
§ ‘Colonialism’ (G. Wade)
§ Explanation: There is a debate among historians about the nature of the
Zheng He voyages. Some, like E. Ringmar, regard them as peaceful trade
missions, while others, such as Geoff Wade, see them as a form of
colonialism.
§ Text (Link with Zheng He): Wade's approach that the expeditions were more
militaristic and imperialistic in nature contrasts with the idea of peaceful
exchange. This emphasizes the complexity of the Ming dynasty, which
simultaneously acted as a cultural great power and as a military force seeking
to establish its influence over other polities.
QING DYNASTY (1644-1912)
- Established by Manchu tribe
→ The defeat of the Ming by the Manchus is viewed as a defeat by a barbarian group
because the Manchus (= They are primarily known as the founders of the Qing dynasty.) did
not profess a commitment to Confucian philosophy. However, when the Qing achieved
power, they began claiming the mandate of heaven and styled themselves as Confucian
rulers.
9
, - ‘Hybridyzation’: combination of Chinese and Manchu practices + receptive to
(Tibetan) Buddhism
→ Unlike the Ming dynasty, the Qing dynasty included non-Confucian ideas in their rule.
They supported Tibetan Buddhism by building temples and inviting important Tibetan
Buddhist teachers to come to Beijing. This was a way to gain the favor of nomadic tribes
that had mostly adopted Tibetan Buddhism as their religion.
- Two important and successful rulers: Kongxi (1661-1722) & Qianlong (1735-1795)
→ The Qing were quite successful in expanding the territorial reach of the Chinese empire.
During the time of the Qing, Taiwan, Tibet, and Xinjiang were incorporated into their
domain.
§ Incorporation of Taiwan, Tibet & Xinjiang
§ Wars in Vietnam & Burma, defensive war against Russia (Treaty of Nerchinsk,
1689)
→ They waged wars against Vietnam and Burma and fought with the Russians as
well. The Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689 settled a war between the Qing empire and the
Russians. The treaty recognized equality and allowed the Russians to build a church
in Beijing, along with access to the Chinese market.
§ Limitations on foreign trade
→ The Qing wanted to control trade and restrict opportunities, ultimately reducing
the possibility for foreign trade to one single port. This meant that if you were
Japanese or Portuguese wanting to trade with the Qing, it was strictly controlled with
only one access point and a specific group of merchants would have access to trade.
The Macartney embassy (1792/1793)
- ‘West Ocean people’
→ The McCartney embassy at the end of the 18th century was led by a British naval
commander who was sent by the English king to establish diplomatic contact with the
Chinese empire. The British wanted access to the Chinese market, but the Chinese imposed
strict conditions for any foreign commercial activity.
- Failed in its ambition
→ The British embassy was ultimately unsuccessful because the Chinese controlled the
conditions of commercial intercourse and dictated the terms under which foreign trade could
occur.
§ Emperor unimpressed by British gifts
→ The Chinese were unimpressed by the British offerings and maintained strict
control over which goods could enter their markets. A key disappointment for the
British was the prohibition on bringing opium into China.
§ Refusal to perform ketou
→ The British also refused to comply with Chinese rituals, particularly the ketou
(kowtow), which was a form of respect demanded by the Chinese court. This refusal
was a major reason for the failure of the embassy.
10
IMPORTANT INFORMATION OF THE COURSE
Information on the exam
- You are allowed to bring a dictionary that translates the words directly.
- The exam may be completed in English or Dutch, but it must be entirely in the chosen
language.
Sample exam questions
1. First type of question
→ 5 questions
→ You have 3 to 4 lines, so focus on the essentials
§ When
→ Place in the century, no exact date
§ Significance
§ Who/what
Example question: Shortly situate the following events, concepts and people in their historical
context and shortly explain their historical significance.
→ Zheng He
→ Benin bronze
2. Second type of question
→ You get 4 questions, but you only need to answer 3.
Example question: Choose three from the four questions in section B. Do not answer all the four
questions. If you answer all the four questions, I will only grade questions 1-2/3.
→ Why was the Warring States period such a culturally dynamic period in Chinese history?
3. Third type of question: essay question
→ For the essay question, you need to draw evidence from various lectures. Weigh the
evidence for and against, use analytical language, present the evidence, then weigh it, and
conclude.
→ 2 pages long.
→ Analytical (ppt) → argue (book) → reflect (articles)
Example question: What has been the role of religion in international relations? And how has that
role developed?
Handy tip
At the end of the textbook, there are questions, some of which he includes on the exam.
1
, LECTURE 1: Introduction
1. History of international relations: why?
WHY IS IT USEFUL FOR SOCIAL SCIENTISTS TO STUDY HISTORY?
1. Historical legacies
→ Historical legacies refer to the lasting influence of past events, systems, or structures on a
society, even after those events or systems have officially ended. These legacies shape
behaviors, norms, institutions, etc. Often continuing to affect a society for many years.
→ Example: Poland, having experienced decades under communist rule, continues to feel
the effects of that period even after transitioning to a democratic system.
2. The politics of historical memories
→ You can’t know the other, but you can try to get to know the other by learning their
history. So, you can understand their political and diplomatic behavior. You don’t have to
accept them; you must know what they are motivated by to understand their behavior.
→ Example: Kiev and Russian foreign policy claims
3. The contingency of moral ideas and social arrangements
→ When you study the past and organizations, you get confronted with different social
arrangements and moral ideas.
→ Examples: Gender equality, natural slavery and sovereignty
4. (Lessons from history)
→ Some may say that history repeats itself, but other will say that we must be careful
because we don’t know if it is the same situation.
Political memories
- All memories are selective
→ You may forget things on purpose, because you don’t want to remember them. It’s a
choice.
- Governments and activists will tell their own story
2. History of international relations: what?
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AS A SCHOLARLY DISCIPLINE IS ‘PRESENTIST’
Presentist means that researchers and academics often use current circumstances or perspectives to
analyze historical events, without sufficiently considering the specific context of that time.
Presentists believe that international relations began with events like the First World War. However,
this perspective is not right, as international relations existed long before that conflict. International
relations are not limited to wartime; they also encompass diplomatic, economic, and cultural
interactions that have occurred throughout history.
2
,INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AS A SCHOLARLY DISCIPLINE IS ‘EUROCENTRIC’
Eurocentric means that the theories and analyses often stem from a European perspective, using
the history, politics, and economy of Europe as the norm or standard to understand other regions
and their development.
We must be mindful that there are both European and non-European experiences. It’s important to
recognize that there are two types of experiences, and not just the European perspective should be
considered.
IS IT A PROBLEM THAT INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AS A DISCIPLINE BETRAYS A
‘PRESENTIST’ AND A ‘EUROCENTRIC BIAS’?
1. Non-European powers are re-asserting themselves
→ Historical legacies
→ Historical memory
2. What is the logic of the international system?
→ Contingency of present arrangements: Basic unit (sate), social practices (borders, flags),
rules and norms (equality) and implications (violence)
3
, LECTURE 2: China and east Asia
It was possible for Japan to isolate itself from China, it was possible for geographic reasons.
1. Introduction: what is China?
WHAT IS CHINA AND WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO IDENTIFY A ‘CHINESE’ INTERNATIONAL
SYSTEM?
- What China is not: a nation-state
§ Imperial dynasties with pretence of being the ‘middle kingdom’ (zhongguo)
→ There were a number of imperial dynasties, they all claimed to be the ‘middle
kingdom’. They didn’t refer to themselves as Chinese, they all had names and called
themselves the ‘middle kingdom’.
§ A civilizational zone sharing in a set of ritual practices
→ Within that geography space with different dynasties they all shared a set of ritual
practices, also there was a shared political vocabulary and how a political system
should be ruled. It remains a Mandat only. A dynasty could fall, and it would allow
the citizens to work for another dynasty. Confucianism was used by many imperial
dynasties as the official ideology, but not all dynasties were originally of Chinese
origin (such as the Manchu dynasty). These dynasties adopted Confucian practices to
strengthen their legitimacy.
- What is does not mean to identify a Chinese international system: encompassing,
unchanging, unquestionably Confucian
§ Overland system
→ Organized relations between China and Mongol tribes or the West and North. It
adopted little from Confucianism.
§ Tribute system
→ Organized relations between China and South and East. It adopted much from
Confucianism.
China was not dominant, there would be times China did dominate, but on the other hand China
was also dominated by other. Confucianism did influence some rules and cultures, but not
constantly.
2. The ‘warring states period’
4
,475 – 251 BCE
- Intense competition, including military competition
→ In this context, we see all the expected dynamics of such an environment: intense
competition among states, territorial disputes, and alliances aimed at preventing the
dominance of any single state. This fierce military rivalry is why it’s often referred to not
just as a period of independent states, but as one of warring states. With multiple states and
no overarching authority, the result is recurring, if not constant, warfare.
- Qin appear to achieve dominance, other ‘polities’ must respond
→ At a certain point, the state of Qin seemed poised to achieve dominance, forcing other
states to decide how to respond. They had to consider what kind of military apparatus to
develop, whether to form alliances against Qin, and with which states to ally. Should they
fully commit to these alliances, or treat them opportunistically? These timeless questions of
foreign policy were just as relevant then as they are today.
There were a lot of independent states, there was no authority above them. That led to intense
competition and even military competition. They all want to achieve dominance, and they want to
see how the other states will respond to that.
- Book: Sunzi, The Art of War
- Underlines the importance of intelligence, subterfuge and dissimulation
It was a book about war. It was very popular book in this period, because all the independent states
want to know as much as possible about war. To dominate other independent states and see how the
other states will respond to that.
THE WARRING STATES PERIOD WAS A PERIOD OF INTENSE AND OFTEN VIOLENT
POLITICAL-MILITARY COMPETITION, AND YET IT WAS A PERIOD IN WHICH CHINA
FLOURISHED. HOW IS THIS POSSIBLE?
Military competition creates new technologies to be one step ahead of the other. To create new
technologies, you need to invest in your economy. Therefore, you need to make the taxation as easy
as possible. The administration must be good, to make the taxation easier.
- Political competition spurred economic development
- Political competition spurred intellectual creativity
There will be a progress of multiple intellectual schools:
- Kongzi/Confucianism: Proper conduct within hierarchical, personal relations
→ Confucius taught that virtue/behavior is more important than laws because moral virtue is
the foundation of lawful behavior. Virtue must be instilled in everyone, from the people to
the rulers. He also believed society should be understood as a network of hierarchical
relationships, like between a father and child, or a ruler and subjects. To maintain harmony,
individuals must act according to their role within these relationships, with subordinates,
such as children or subjects, showing obedience to those in authority.
5
, - Daoism
- Fajia/Legalism: Ruthless pursuit of state interests; role of law therein, but ruler above
law, certainly in foreign affairs
→ Moral virtue means nothing compared to Confucianism. A ruler should be above the law.
If you break the law, you must be severely punished. According to Legalism, this is the only
way to govern and maintain dominance over the citizens.
3. The development of the Chinese state
‘China’ was ruled over by a succession of imperial dynasties. The was no such thing as a Chinese
empire.
- Plenty of struggle and competition
- Not every dynasty was of Chinese origin
- Yet also myriad elements of continuity
§ In cultural terms
→ Confucianism didn’t suddenly emerge as the dominant philosophy; it was adopted
early on as the official state ideology. While not all political behavior can be
explained by Confucianism, the state identified itself as Confucian, even if it didn’t
always act accordingly. Civil servants were expected to study and be familiar with
Confucian teachings. This continued throughout most of the imperial period, with
Confucianism remaining the official ideology, with some exceptions, like the
Mongol dynasty. However, even later dynasties, such as the Manchu dynasty, still
identified themselves as Confucian imperial dynasties.
§ In terms of political organization
→ All those imperial dynasties will claim the Mandat of heaven. Once the transition
to a new dynasty was fully established, subjects, primarily the elites, would accept
that the new dynasty held this mandate, legitimizing their rule. However, this
legitimacy cannot be taken for granted, as they often seized power through violent
means. To reestablish their legitimacy, they would claim the Mandate of Heaven and
seek the acceptance of others that they possessed it.
HAN DYNASTY (206 BCE (bofore the common era) – 220 CE)
- Establishment of professional administration
→ By taxing main commodities (example: salt)
- Adoption of Confucianism as state philosophy
- Organization of society and economy
→ Roads, canals, coins
→ They build roads and canals. They also decide to mint coins, so can trading be controlled
and trading will also be easier. They tax salt, but they also tax liquor.
- Military engagement with Xiongnu Federation
6
,The Silk roads
= A dense network of trade routes facilitated the long-distance transport of goods. Only luxury
goods were traded. Merchants would travel to a certain point, where the luxury goods were
transferred to another vehicle, making multiple stops with various traders along the way. It could
sometimes take up to 15 merchants for the goods to reach their final destination. As people and
goods traveled, ideas also spread and made their way into China. The Silk Roads were crucial for
spreading ideas like Buddhism.
Han dynasty = “Sogdian letter” [small states in world politics]
→ The Han dynasty valued the Silk Roads, but they did not manage or establish them. The Silk
Roads developed organically, becoming the typical routes taken by traders. People felt a sense of
responsibility for these roads due to the numerous robbers that frequented them. They managed the
routes by creating resting points and checking documents, among other measures.
TANG DYNASTY (618-907 CE)
- Entrance examinations (meritocracy)
→ The Tang dynasty formalized this requirement and stated that it was not just when
someone was a civil servant that they should start learning to read the Confucian classes, but
before becoming a civil servant, they ought to be deeply familiar with the Confucian classes.
- China spreads its cultural influence
→ What happens at this time because of China achieving this aura of cultural prominence is
that neighboring countries start to become impressed by China. They begin adopting
Chinese cultural artifacts, introducing Confucianism, and embracing Confucianism. They
start talking about political authority in their particular regions in terms of the mandate of
heaven.
- China shows itself open to foreign influences
→ example: Xuanzang (Buddhist monk)
→ One indication that China is not yet self-absorbed is that it is still open to foreign
influence. The story of this monk illustrates this. He traveled to India, and the reason for him
to travel to India was that he sensed that they did not have a proper understanding of things.
He spent 13 years learning from all kinds of Buddhist scholars and monks. When he
returned to China, the Tang dynasty decided to sponsor a center of Buddhist learning.
SONG DYNASTY (960-1279)
- Era of major technological achievement
→ This is an era of technological achievement. Gunpowder is invented at this time, a
Chinese invention during the Song dynasty. The Song dynasty is a time when urban culture
develops very strongly in China, creating an extremely cosmopolitan urban culture.
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, - Era of great military challenges, especially from nomadic polities
→ The Song dynasty faced extremely serious geopolitical challenges. These challenges did
not come from other sedentary states but from nomadic polities. There were two nomadic
groups that attacked them: the Jurchens and the Mongols. The Jurchens managed to defeat
the Song and forced the Song dynasty to move their capital from Kaifeng in the north to
Guangzhou in the south. These nomads were formidable military opponents for the Song
dynasty. Some 100 years later, the Song dynasty was attacked by the Mongols under the
command of Kublai Khan, a Mongol leader. The Song dynasty ceased to exist, and the Yuan
dynasty was established by Kublai Khan.
YUAN DYNASTY (1271-1368)
- Of Mongolic origin (Kublai Khan)
→ The Yuan dynasty did not last long because Kublai Khan was not a good leader.
MING DYNASTY (1368-1644)
- Porcelain vases & luxurious gardens
§ Explanation: The Ming dynasty is known for its art and culture, such as porcelain
and garden architecture. These luxuries symbolized the wealth and cultural prestige
of the empire.
§ Text (Link with Zheng He): The Zheng He voyages contributed to cultural exchange
and trade, leading to the import of exotic goods, including luxury items such as
porcelain. Through these voyages, China was able to expand its cl influence and
welcome new ideas and products.
- ‘Great wall of China’ and Zheng He voyages
§ Explanation: The Great Wall was built as a defense line against nomadic groups
coming from the north. This reflects the Ming dynasty's concerns about invasions
and the preservation of their territorial integrity.
§ Text (Link with Zheng He): Although the Great Wall is a symbol of isolation, the
voyages of Zheng He were a way to expand Chinese influence abroad. These two
contrasts illustrate the complex dynamics of Ming diplomacy, as they simultaneously
withdrew behind physical defenses and explored the world through maritime
expeditions.
It’s known for isolationist dynasty. Is the dynasty who build the great wall of China, it doesn’t exist
only a lot of separate walls. It was an attempt to keep out the nomadic groups.
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,The Zheng he voyages
- Brings a ‘giraffe’ to Beijing
§ Explanation: During his voyages, Zheng He brought a giraffe to Beijing, a symbol of
the exotic wealth and cultural exchange that took place. This highlights the prestige
of the Ming dynasty and their connections with other countries.
§ Text (Link with Zheng He): The giraffe represents the successes of Zheng He’s
expeditions, as they brought not only goods but also curiosities and wonders from
other countries to China. This fits into the broader context of cultural and
commercial exchange.
- Come a to an abrupt end (causes of the stopping)
§ Explanation: The voyages of Zheng He ended abruptly, especially after the death of
Emperor Yongle. There were arguments that the expeditions were too costly, and
that attention needed to be focused more inward.
§ Text (Link with Zheng He): This aligns with Wade's remark that the voyages, despite
their impact, were not sustained by the Ming dynasty. The death of Yongle resulted
in a shift in priorities towards a more isolationist approach, as seen in the later focus
on defending the borders.
- Subject of historiographical controversy
§ ‘Journeys of exploration and trade’ (E. Ringmar)
§ ‘Colonialism’ (G. Wade)
§ Explanation: There is a debate among historians about the nature of the
Zheng He voyages. Some, like E. Ringmar, regard them as peaceful trade
missions, while others, such as Geoff Wade, see them as a form of
colonialism.
§ Text (Link with Zheng He): Wade's approach that the expeditions were more
militaristic and imperialistic in nature contrasts with the idea of peaceful
exchange. This emphasizes the complexity of the Ming dynasty, which
simultaneously acted as a cultural great power and as a military force seeking
to establish its influence over other polities.
QING DYNASTY (1644-1912)
- Established by Manchu tribe
→ The defeat of the Ming by the Manchus is viewed as a defeat by a barbarian group
because the Manchus (= They are primarily known as the founders of the Qing dynasty.) did
not profess a commitment to Confucian philosophy. However, when the Qing achieved
power, they began claiming the mandate of heaven and styled themselves as Confucian
rulers.
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, - ‘Hybridyzation’: combination of Chinese and Manchu practices + receptive to
(Tibetan) Buddhism
→ Unlike the Ming dynasty, the Qing dynasty included non-Confucian ideas in their rule.
They supported Tibetan Buddhism by building temples and inviting important Tibetan
Buddhist teachers to come to Beijing. This was a way to gain the favor of nomadic tribes
that had mostly adopted Tibetan Buddhism as their religion.
- Two important and successful rulers: Kongxi (1661-1722) & Qianlong (1735-1795)
→ The Qing were quite successful in expanding the territorial reach of the Chinese empire.
During the time of the Qing, Taiwan, Tibet, and Xinjiang were incorporated into their
domain.
§ Incorporation of Taiwan, Tibet & Xinjiang
§ Wars in Vietnam & Burma, defensive war against Russia (Treaty of Nerchinsk,
1689)
→ They waged wars against Vietnam and Burma and fought with the Russians as
well. The Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689 settled a war between the Qing empire and the
Russians. The treaty recognized equality and allowed the Russians to build a church
in Beijing, along with access to the Chinese market.
§ Limitations on foreign trade
→ The Qing wanted to control trade and restrict opportunities, ultimately reducing
the possibility for foreign trade to one single port. This meant that if you were
Japanese or Portuguese wanting to trade with the Qing, it was strictly controlled with
only one access point and a specific group of merchants would have access to trade.
The Macartney embassy (1792/1793)
- ‘West Ocean people’
→ The McCartney embassy at the end of the 18th century was led by a British naval
commander who was sent by the English king to establish diplomatic contact with the
Chinese empire. The British wanted access to the Chinese market, but the Chinese imposed
strict conditions for any foreign commercial activity.
- Failed in its ambition
→ The British embassy was ultimately unsuccessful because the Chinese controlled the
conditions of commercial intercourse and dictated the terms under which foreign trade could
occur.
§ Emperor unimpressed by British gifts
→ The Chinese were unimpressed by the British offerings and maintained strict
control over which goods could enter their markets. A key disappointment for the
British was the prohibition on bringing opium into China.
§ Refusal to perform ketou
→ The British also refused to comply with Chinese rituals, particularly the ketou
(kowtow), which was a form of respect demanded by the Chinese court. This refusal
was a major reason for the failure of the embassy.
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