BIO311C SATA FINAL REVIEW
What is biological hierarchy? Know the levels and examples. - Answers - 1. Atoms- C,
H, O, N, S,
2. Molecules- CO2, O2, H2O, Amino Acids, Sugars
3. Macromolecules- proteins, carbohydrates, lipids
4. Parts of a cell- membrane, nucleus, mitochondria
5. Cells- unicellular organisms and part of multicellular organism
6. Tissues- bone, muscle, nerve
7. Organs- heart, lung, brain
8. Organ Systems- circulatory, reproductive
9. Multicellular Organisms- plants, fungi, animals
10. Population- many individuals of same species
11. Ecosystem- collection of populations in limited area
12. Biomes- desert, tundra, forest
13. Biosphere- Living crust of the earth in air, water
Define covalent bonds (polar, non-polar), ionic bonds, H bonds, Van der Waals
interactions and hydrophobic interactions. - Answers - ~Polar Covalent bonds- when two
atoms have significantly different electronegativity, pair of electrons is unequally shared
between two atoms
~Non-polar Covalent bonds- atoms have similar electronegativity, pair of electrons is
equally shared between two atoms
~Ionic bonds- atoms have extreme electronegativity difference (>1.7), or a metal and
nonmetal; the more electronegative atom pulls the electron away from the less
electronegative atom to create an anion and a cation
~H bonds: chemical bond between an electronegative atom, such as fluorine, oxygen,
or nitrogen, and a hydrogen atom bound to another electronegative atom; hydrogen
attached negatively to a partial positive charge
~Van der Waals interactions- weak attractions due to constantly moving electrons/
constantly changing positive and negative charges, temporary (London Dispersion
Forces) and dipole-dipole attractions
~hydrophobic interactions- non-polar molecules (Ex- water on leaf, water is not soaked
up, it is repellant), lipid soluble
~hydrophilic interactions- polar molecules, water soluble
Know some biological examples of where these bonds and interactions occur. -
Answers - ~Polar covalent bonds- O-H bond in H2O or N-H bond in NH3 [ammonia]
~Non-polar covalent bonds- O=O [O2], C-H bond
,~Ionic bonds- Cl + Na --> Cl- + Na+
~H bonds- between other molecules, water, H2O can form up to 4 bonds, H-bonds of
DNA, RNA, and proteins
~Van der Waals interactions- lipids in biological membranes and cellulose in plant cell
walls
~hydrophobic interactions- the fatty acid tails inside the phospholipid bilayer
~hydrophilic interactions- heads of the phospholipid bilayer
What are the features of various functional groups and their importance? - Answers -
Acids
~Carboxyl: -COOH (acid), COO- (conjugate base) [Ex- fatty acid, amino acid], POLAR
~Phosphate: -PO4^2- [Ex- phospholipid, nucleotides]
Bases
~Amine: -NH2 (base), -NH3+ (conjugate acid) [Ex- nitrogenous base, amino acid]
Neither
~Sulfhydryl: -SH, R-SH + HS-R --> -R-S-S-R + H2 disulfide bond, THIOL, SLIGHTLY
polar [Ex- Amino Acid, Cystine, Disulfide]
~Carbonyl: -C=O [Ex- Aldehyde if at end --> Aldose, Ketone if in middle --> Ketose]
~Hydroxyl: -OH, alcohols [Ex- alcohol, sugar, amino acid], POLAR
Non Polar
~Methyl: -CH3, longer the hydrocarbon is, the more non-polar it becomes [Ex-
hydrocarbons, fats]
Know examples of biological molecules containing such functional groups. - Answers -
~Hydrocarbon: methyl group, cis configuration when the Hydrogens are horizontal with
one another and the methyl groups are horizontal to one another
~Fatty Acid- carboxyl group
~Nucleic Acid- phosphate group
~Amino Acid- amine group, Hydroxyl, Carboxyl, can have other groups attached to the
bottom hydrogen (like Sulfhydryl)
~Glucose, Carbohydrate- Carbonyl, Aldehyde (end), Hydroxyl
,Understand how condensation synthesis and hydrolysis occur to make biopolymers. -
Answers - Condensation Synthesis: covalently link together monomers to form polymer
(glycosidic linkage), creates water
Hydrolysis: Breaking down polymer into monomer, uses water to break down
Identify examples of monomers in each group based on their structure and functional
groups. - Answers - Monomers for...
~Carbohydrate: Monosaccharide (Hydroxyl)
~Lipids: Glycerol (Hydroxyl) and Fatty Acids (Carboxyl, Methyl, Hydroxyl)
~Proteins: Amino Acids (Amine, Carboxyl, Hydroxyl)
~Nucleic Acids: Nucleotides (Phosphate, Amine, Hydroxyl)
What are the 4 different kinds of lipids, examples and their functions? - Answers -
Triglyceride or fat
○ Glycerol, fatty acid
○ Energy storage, insulation
● Carotenoid
○ Made from 5-C isoprene units
○ Color pigments used in photosynthesis
● Steroid
○ 4 fused C-rings
○ Cholesterol, testosterone
~Saturated fats: no double bonds or kinks, usually solid at room temp, closely packed
~Unsaturated fats: at least one double bond, liquid at room temp, not closely packed
together Ex.plant fats, canola oil
*The more saturated fat --> higher the melting temperature
● Phospholipid
○ Glycerol, 2 fatty acid, phosphate group
○ Major lipid bilayer component
Know the types of amino acids based on the side chain properties (from a given figure) -
Answers - Peptide bonds are found in proteins
*The R-Group indicates which way the protein folds (interior or exterior based on
solvent);
IF THE R GROUP IS POLAR then it is Hydrophilic (exposed to water in aqueous
surroundings)[Charged: (-,+), -COO-, -NH3+ & Uncharged: -OH, -SH]
, IF THE R GROUP IS NON POLAR then it is Hydrophobic (stay away from water in
aqueous surroundings) [-CH3, linear chains of branched hydrocarbons]
How are the carbohydrates classified? Know specific examples. - Answers -
~Monosaccharides: simple sugars (single units) ex. Glucose, fructose
~Disaccharides: two monosaccharides combined through glycosidic linkage ex.
Lactose, maltose
~Polysaccharides- >1000 Da in size; Storage for energy utilization- Starch (plants),
Glycogen (animals) linkage which humans can digest; Structural to build cell walls and
exoskeletons of insects- Cellulose, Callose, Chitin (NAM-NAG in cell wall)
What are the 4 different levels of protein structures? Know the bonds that stabilize
them. - Answers - ~Primary Structure: Amino acid sequence, stabilized by peptide
bonds [Ex- protein sequencing]
~Secondary Structure: interaction between amino acid side chains [Ex- H bonds]
~Tertiary Structure: 3D folding of polypeptide
ex. disulfide linkages, ionic bonds, H-bond, hydrophobic, hydrophilic
~Quaternary Structure: interactions of the subunits (individual proteins) ex. disulfide
linkages, ionic bonds, H-bond, hydrophobic, hydrophilic
What are nucleosides, nucleotides, NTPs and dNTPs? - Answers - ~nucleosides-
nitrogenous base + ribose sugar
~nucleotide- nitrogenous base + ribose sugar + phosphate
~NTPs- contains 3 phosphate groups
~dNTPs- sugar is deoxyribose, 3 phosphate groups
Understand how the glycosidic, ester, peptide and phosphodiester bonds are formed. -
Answers - They are all formed through condensation/dehydration synthesis (combined,
water released).
Compare and contrast DNA and RNA. - Answers - BOTH
~Nucleic Acids
~polymers (DNA/RNA) made up of nucleotide monomers
~complementary base pairing
RNA
-ribose sugar
~Have nitrogenous base, ribose, phosphate
~single strand, variable structure
What is biological hierarchy? Know the levels and examples. - Answers - 1. Atoms- C,
H, O, N, S,
2. Molecules- CO2, O2, H2O, Amino Acids, Sugars
3. Macromolecules- proteins, carbohydrates, lipids
4. Parts of a cell- membrane, nucleus, mitochondria
5. Cells- unicellular organisms and part of multicellular organism
6. Tissues- bone, muscle, nerve
7. Organs- heart, lung, brain
8. Organ Systems- circulatory, reproductive
9. Multicellular Organisms- plants, fungi, animals
10. Population- many individuals of same species
11. Ecosystem- collection of populations in limited area
12. Biomes- desert, tundra, forest
13. Biosphere- Living crust of the earth in air, water
Define covalent bonds (polar, non-polar), ionic bonds, H bonds, Van der Waals
interactions and hydrophobic interactions. - Answers - ~Polar Covalent bonds- when two
atoms have significantly different electronegativity, pair of electrons is unequally shared
between two atoms
~Non-polar Covalent bonds- atoms have similar electronegativity, pair of electrons is
equally shared between two atoms
~Ionic bonds- atoms have extreme electronegativity difference (>1.7), or a metal and
nonmetal; the more electronegative atom pulls the electron away from the less
electronegative atom to create an anion and a cation
~H bonds: chemical bond between an electronegative atom, such as fluorine, oxygen,
or nitrogen, and a hydrogen atom bound to another electronegative atom; hydrogen
attached negatively to a partial positive charge
~Van der Waals interactions- weak attractions due to constantly moving electrons/
constantly changing positive and negative charges, temporary (London Dispersion
Forces) and dipole-dipole attractions
~hydrophobic interactions- non-polar molecules (Ex- water on leaf, water is not soaked
up, it is repellant), lipid soluble
~hydrophilic interactions- polar molecules, water soluble
Know some biological examples of where these bonds and interactions occur. -
Answers - ~Polar covalent bonds- O-H bond in H2O or N-H bond in NH3 [ammonia]
~Non-polar covalent bonds- O=O [O2], C-H bond
,~Ionic bonds- Cl + Na --> Cl- + Na+
~H bonds- between other molecules, water, H2O can form up to 4 bonds, H-bonds of
DNA, RNA, and proteins
~Van der Waals interactions- lipids in biological membranes and cellulose in plant cell
walls
~hydrophobic interactions- the fatty acid tails inside the phospholipid bilayer
~hydrophilic interactions- heads of the phospholipid bilayer
What are the features of various functional groups and their importance? - Answers -
Acids
~Carboxyl: -COOH (acid), COO- (conjugate base) [Ex- fatty acid, amino acid], POLAR
~Phosphate: -PO4^2- [Ex- phospholipid, nucleotides]
Bases
~Amine: -NH2 (base), -NH3+ (conjugate acid) [Ex- nitrogenous base, amino acid]
Neither
~Sulfhydryl: -SH, R-SH + HS-R --> -R-S-S-R + H2 disulfide bond, THIOL, SLIGHTLY
polar [Ex- Amino Acid, Cystine, Disulfide]
~Carbonyl: -C=O [Ex- Aldehyde if at end --> Aldose, Ketone if in middle --> Ketose]
~Hydroxyl: -OH, alcohols [Ex- alcohol, sugar, amino acid], POLAR
Non Polar
~Methyl: -CH3, longer the hydrocarbon is, the more non-polar it becomes [Ex-
hydrocarbons, fats]
Know examples of biological molecules containing such functional groups. - Answers -
~Hydrocarbon: methyl group, cis configuration when the Hydrogens are horizontal with
one another and the methyl groups are horizontal to one another
~Fatty Acid- carboxyl group
~Nucleic Acid- phosphate group
~Amino Acid- amine group, Hydroxyl, Carboxyl, can have other groups attached to the
bottom hydrogen (like Sulfhydryl)
~Glucose, Carbohydrate- Carbonyl, Aldehyde (end), Hydroxyl
,Understand how condensation synthesis and hydrolysis occur to make biopolymers. -
Answers - Condensation Synthesis: covalently link together monomers to form polymer
(glycosidic linkage), creates water
Hydrolysis: Breaking down polymer into monomer, uses water to break down
Identify examples of monomers in each group based on their structure and functional
groups. - Answers - Monomers for...
~Carbohydrate: Monosaccharide (Hydroxyl)
~Lipids: Glycerol (Hydroxyl) and Fatty Acids (Carboxyl, Methyl, Hydroxyl)
~Proteins: Amino Acids (Amine, Carboxyl, Hydroxyl)
~Nucleic Acids: Nucleotides (Phosphate, Amine, Hydroxyl)
What are the 4 different kinds of lipids, examples and their functions? - Answers -
Triglyceride or fat
○ Glycerol, fatty acid
○ Energy storage, insulation
● Carotenoid
○ Made from 5-C isoprene units
○ Color pigments used in photosynthesis
● Steroid
○ 4 fused C-rings
○ Cholesterol, testosterone
~Saturated fats: no double bonds or kinks, usually solid at room temp, closely packed
~Unsaturated fats: at least one double bond, liquid at room temp, not closely packed
together Ex.plant fats, canola oil
*The more saturated fat --> higher the melting temperature
● Phospholipid
○ Glycerol, 2 fatty acid, phosphate group
○ Major lipid bilayer component
Know the types of amino acids based on the side chain properties (from a given figure) -
Answers - Peptide bonds are found in proteins
*The R-Group indicates which way the protein folds (interior or exterior based on
solvent);
IF THE R GROUP IS POLAR then it is Hydrophilic (exposed to water in aqueous
surroundings)[Charged: (-,+), -COO-, -NH3+ & Uncharged: -OH, -SH]
, IF THE R GROUP IS NON POLAR then it is Hydrophobic (stay away from water in
aqueous surroundings) [-CH3, linear chains of branched hydrocarbons]
How are the carbohydrates classified? Know specific examples. - Answers -
~Monosaccharides: simple sugars (single units) ex. Glucose, fructose
~Disaccharides: two monosaccharides combined through glycosidic linkage ex.
Lactose, maltose
~Polysaccharides- >1000 Da in size; Storage for energy utilization- Starch (plants),
Glycogen (animals) linkage which humans can digest; Structural to build cell walls and
exoskeletons of insects- Cellulose, Callose, Chitin (NAM-NAG in cell wall)
What are the 4 different levels of protein structures? Know the bonds that stabilize
them. - Answers - ~Primary Structure: Amino acid sequence, stabilized by peptide
bonds [Ex- protein sequencing]
~Secondary Structure: interaction between amino acid side chains [Ex- H bonds]
~Tertiary Structure: 3D folding of polypeptide
ex. disulfide linkages, ionic bonds, H-bond, hydrophobic, hydrophilic
~Quaternary Structure: interactions of the subunits (individual proteins) ex. disulfide
linkages, ionic bonds, H-bond, hydrophobic, hydrophilic
What are nucleosides, nucleotides, NTPs and dNTPs? - Answers - ~nucleosides-
nitrogenous base + ribose sugar
~nucleotide- nitrogenous base + ribose sugar + phosphate
~NTPs- contains 3 phosphate groups
~dNTPs- sugar is deoxyribose, 3 phosphate groups
Understand how the glycosidic, ester, peptide and phosphodiester bonds are formed. -
Answers - They are all formed through condensation/dehydration synthesis (combined,
water released).
Compare and contrast DNA and RNA. - Answers - BOTH
~Nucleic Acids
~polymers (DNA/RNA) made up of nucleotide monomers
~complementary base pairing
RNA
-ribose sugar
~Have nitrogenous base, ribose, phosphate
~single strand, variable structure
