Memory
- Persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of
information
- Also the storage of what has been learned and remembered
Studying Memory: Measuring Retention
3 measures of memory retention:
- Recall: A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned
earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test
- Recognition: A measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously
learned, as on a multiple-choice test
- Relearning: A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when
learning material again
Memory Model
● Information-processing model
○ Compares human memory to computer operations
○ Involves 3 processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval
● Connectionism information-processing model
○ Focuses on multitrack, parallel processing- the processing of many
aspects of a problem simultaneously
○ Views memories as products of interconnected neural networks
● 3 Processing Stages:
1. We record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory,
immediate, very brief recording of sensory information
2. We then process information into short-term memory (activated memory that
holds a few items briefly), where we encode it through rehearsal
3. Finally, information moves into long-term memory, the relatively permanent and
limitless storehouse of the memory system of knowledge, skills, and experiences,
for later retrieval
● Working memory
○ Stresses the active processing occurring in the second memory stage
○ In a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active
processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information
retrieved from long-term memory
● Automatic processing
○ Processing that occurs without awareness
, Encoding Memories- Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Versus Automatic Processing
● Explicit memory (declarative memory): Memory of facts and experiences that one can
consciously know and “declare”. We encode explicit memories through conscious
effortful processing.
● Implicit memory (nondeclarative memory): Retention of learned skills or classically
conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. We encode implicit
memories through automatic processing, without our awareness
Automatic Processing and Implicit Memories
● Implicit memories include procedural memory for automatic skills and classically
conditioned associations among stimuli
● Information is automatically processed about:
○ Space
○ Time
○ Frequency
Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories
● Sensory memory
○ Sensory memory feeds our active working memory, recording momentary images
of scenes or echoes of sounds.
○ Two types of sensory memory:
■ Iconic memory: Picture-image memory of visual stimuli lasting no more
than a few tenths of a second
■ Echoic memory: Sound memory of auditory stimuli; can be recalled within
3 or 4 seconds
Working Memory
● Processor of conscious experience
● Holds a few items briefly (rule of thumb: 7 + /-2) before the information is stored or
forgotten
● Without distraction, we can recall about 7 digits or about six letters or five words
● Capacity varies by age and distractions at the time of memory tasks
Effortful Processing Strategies
● Chunking: Organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units
● Mnemonics: Memory aids, especially techniques that use vivid imagery and
organizational devices.
● Peg words: 1 is bun, 2 is shoe, 3 is tree, 4 is door, 5 is hive, 6 is sticks, 7 is heaven, 8 is
gate, 9 is wine, 10 is hen
Distributed Practice
● Spacing effect: Encoding is more effective when it is spread over time
○ Distributed practice produces better long-term retention than is achieved through
massed practice
- Persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of
information
- Also the storage of what has been learned and remembered
Studying Memory: Measuring Retention
3 measures of memory retention:
- Recall: A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned
earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test
- Recognition: A measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously
learned, as on a multiple-choice test
- Relearning: A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when
learning material again
Memory Model
● Information-processing model
○ Compares human memory to computer operations
○ Involves 3 processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval
● Connectionism information-processing model
○ Focuses on multitrack, parallel processing- the processing of many
aspects of a problem simultaneously
○ Views memories as products of interconnected neural networks
● 3 Processing Stages:
1. We record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory,
immediate, very brief recording of sensory information
2. We then process information into short-term memory (activated memory that
holds a few items briefly), where we encode it through rehearsal
3. Finally, information moves into long-term memory, the relatively permanent and
limitless storehouse of the memory system of knowledge, skills, and experiences,
for later retrieval
● Working memory
○ Stresses the active processing occurring in the second memory stage
○ In a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active
processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information
retrieved from long-term memory
● Automatic processing
○ Processing that occurs without awareness
, Encoding Memories- Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Versus Automatic Processing
● Explicit memory (declarative memory): Memory of facts and experiences that one can
consciously know and “declare”. We encode explicit memories through conscious
effortful processing.
● Implicit memory (nondeclarative memory): Retention of learned skills or classically
conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. We encode implicit
memories through automatic processing, without our awareness
Automatic Processing and Implicit Memories
● Implicit memories include procedural memory for automatic skills and classically
conditioned associations among stimuli
● Information is automatically processed about:
○ Space
○ Time
○ Frequency
Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories
● Sensory memory
○ Sensory memory feeds our active working memory, recording momentary images
of scenes or echoes of sounds.
○ Two types of sensory memory:
■ Iconic memory: Picture-image memory of visual stimuli lasting no more
than a few tenths of a second
■ Echoic memory: Sound memory of auditory stimuli; can be recalled within
3 or 4 seconds
Working Memory
● Processor of conscious experience
● Holds a few items briefly (rule of thumb: 7 + /-2) before the information is stored or
forgotten
● Without distraction, we can recall about 7 digits or about six letters or five words
● Capacity varies by age and distractions at the time of memory tasks
Effortful Processing Strategies
● Chunking: Organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units
● Mnemonics: Memory aids, especially techniques that use vivid imagery and
organizational devices.
● Peg words: 1 is bun, 2 is shoe, 3 is tree, 4 is door, 5 is hive, 6 is sticks, 7 is heaven, 8 is
gate, 9 is wine, 10 is hen
Distributed Practice
● Spacing effect: Encoding is more effective when it is spread over time
○ Distributed practice produces better long-term retention than is achieved through
massed practice
