4.2.3
RESEARCH METHODS
Content
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 3
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS ........................................................................................................... 8
OBSERVATION ............................................................................................................................. 4
SELF REPORT TECHNIQUES ........................................................................................................... 8
CORRELATION ............................................................................................................................ 14
CASE STUDIES ............................................................................................................................ 16
AIMS AND HYPOTHESES ............................................................................................................. 17
SAMPLING ................................................................................................................................. 18
PILOT STUDY .............................................................................................................................. 20
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS ............................................................................................................ 21
VARIABLES ................................................................................................................................. 22
ETHICS ....................................................................................................................................... 25
PEER REVIEW ............................................................................................................................. 28
IMPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH FOR ECONOMY ................................................... 29
RELIABILITY................................................................................................................................ 30
VALIDITY.................................................................................................................................... 31
FEATURES OF SCIENCE................................................................................................................ 32
REPORTING PSYCHOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS ........................................................................... 33
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DATA .................................................................................... 35
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA .............................................................................................. 36
META-ANALYSIS......................................................................................................................... 37
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ............................................................................................................ 38
DISTRIBUTIONS .......................................................................................................................... 39
1
,INFERENTIAL STATISTICS ............................................................................................................ 41
PARAMETRIC TEST ..................................................................................................................... 44
CONTENT ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................... 45
THEMATIC ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................. 45
2
,RESEARCH METHODS
INTRODUCTION
RESEARCH METHODS USED IN PSYCHOLOGYs
Experimental methods:
▪ Laboratory experiment
▪ Field experiment
▪ Natural experiment
▪ Quasi experiment
Non-experimental methods:
▪ Observational techniques
▪ Self-report techniques (questionnaires & interviews)
▪ Correlations
▪ Case studies
3
,OBSERVATION
Observational Observational techniques involve looking at and recording behaviour without
techniques interfering with it.
IN observation, there’s no attempt to manipulate an independent variable.
Types of observation
Differ from each other in number of ways:
1. The SETTING
2. The level of DECEPTION
3. The level of INVOLVEMENT from the researcher
Naturalistic and Controlled observation
✓ High ecological validity = pps
Naturalistic observation involves behaviour is more likely to be
observing behaviour that would normally natural
Naturalistic occur in a natural setting.
observation Poor control over environment =
Researcher cannot alter the environment low cause and effect
of the participant being observed. Difficult to replicate
✓ Easy to replicate = to see whether
Controlled observation involves the findings are consistent and
observing behaviour within a laboratory reliable
setting or a prepared situation created by
Controlled the researcher. PPs behaviours are unnatural = the
observation participants are being observed in
The researcher can alter the aspects of an artificial environment
the environment of the participants being
observed.
4
,Overt and Covert observation
✓ It is more ethical than covert
In overt observation, participants are observation
aware that they are being observed.
Overt
Demand characteristics =
observation Being open/honest about the role. participants are aware that they
are being observed, this leads to
changing their behaviour
✓ Participants doesn’t know they are
In covert observation, participants are being observed = their behaviour
unaware that they are being observed. is natural
Covert
observation Being dishonest/closed about the role. It is less ethical than overt
observation = this arises ethical
issues such as consent, deception
and privacy
Participant and Non-participant observation
✓ The data is more likely to be
In participant observation, the accurate (valid) = researcher gets
researcher becomes the part of the group their first-hand experiences into
and participate in group activities. the participants’ real life.
Participant Tries to see the world through the eyes of The data collected may be
observation participants in order to gain first-hand inaccurate (lack validity) =
experience. researcher gets too involved with
the group and find it difficult to
observe the group objectively.
✓ The data is likely to be accurate
In non-participant observation, the (valid) = easier to objectively
researcher is detached from the group observe and record their
and does not become part of the group behaviours since the researcher
being observed. would be emotionally detached
from the participants. Participants
Instead, they just watch the group from a might not be aware that they are
Non- distance. being observed so their
participant
behaviours are more likely to be
observation
natural.
The data collected may be
inaccurate = the actual meaning of
a participant’s behaviour may be
unclear from a distance and could
be interpreted incorrectly.
5
, Recording data from an observation
Structured and Unstructured observation
Unstructured observation – the researcher records everything that they see
Structured observation – the researcher is prepared for what they are going to see and record
behaviours systematically.
When carrying out a structured observation, the researchers must decide which
behavioural categories and sampling procedure to use.
Behavioural categories
Behavioural categories involve operationalising target behaviours so that it is precisely measurable
and made observable.
Sampling procedures
Sampling procedures decide how the occurrence of behaviour is to be recorded.
Event sampling: - behaviour is recorded every time it occurs
- good for observing individuals or small groups
Time sampling: - record behaviour of each of the participants at regular intervals (e.g. five minutes)
- good with dealing with large groups of people
6
RESEARCH METHODS
Content
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 3
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS ........................................................................................................... 8
OBSERVATION ............................................................................................................................. 4
SELF REPORT TECHNIQUES ........................................................................................................... 8
CORRELATION ............................................................................................................................ 14
CASE STUDIES ............................................................................................................................ 16
AIMS AND HYPOTHESES ............................................................................................................. 17
SAMPLING ................................................................................................................................. 18
PILOT STUDY .............................................................................................................................. 20
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS ............................................................................................................ 21
VARIABLES ................................................................................................................................. 22
ETHICS ....................................................................................................................................... 25
PEER REVIEW ............................................................................................................................. 28
IMPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH FOR ECONOMY ................................................... 29
RELIABILITY................................................................................................................................ 30
VALIDITY.................................................................................................................................... 31
FEATURES OF SCIENCE................................................................................................................ 32
REPORTING PSYCHOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS ........................................................................... 33
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DATA .................................................................................... 35
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA .............................................................................................. 36
META-ANALYSIS......................................................................................................................... 37
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ............................................................................................................ 38
DISTRIBUTIONS .......................................................................................................................... 39
1
,INFERENTIAL STATISTICS ............................................................................................................ 41
PARAMETRIC TEST ..................................................................................................................... 44
CONTENT ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................... 45
THEMATIC ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................. 45
2
,RESEARCH METHODS
INTRODUCTION
RESEARCH METHODS USED IN PSYCHOLOGYs
Experimental methods:
▪ Laboratory experiment
▪ Field experiment
▪ Natural experiment
▪ Quasi experiment
Non-experimental methods:
▪ Observational techniques
▪ Self-report techniques (questionnaires & interviews)
▪ Correlations
▪ Case studies
3
,OBSERVATION
Observational Observational techniques involve looking at and recording behaviour without
techniques interfering with it.
IN observation, there’s no attempt to manipulate an independent variable.
Types of observation
Differ from each other in number of ways:
1. The SETTING
2. The level of DECEPTION
3. The level of INVOLVEMENT from the researcher
Naturalistic and Controlled observation
✓ High ecological validity = pps
Naturalistic observation involves behaviour is more likely to be
observing behaviour that would normally natural
Naturalistic occur in a natural setting.
observation Poor control over environment =
Researcher cannot alter the environment low cause and effect
of the participant being observed. Difficult to replicate
✓ Easy to replicate = to see whether
Controlled observation involves the findings are consistent and
observing behaviour within a laboratory reliable
setting or a prepared situation created by
Controlled the researcher. PPs behaviours are unnatural = the
observation participants are being observed in
The researcher can alter the aspects of an artificial environment
the environment of the participants being
observed.
4
,Overt and Covert observation
✓ It is more ethical than covert
In overt observation, participants are observation
aware that they are being observed.
Overt
Demand characteristics =
observation Being open/honest about the role. participants are aware that they
are being observed, this leads to
changing their behaviour
✓ Participants doesn’t know they are
In covert observation, participants are being observed = their behaviour
unaware that they are being observed. is natural
Covert
observation Being dishonest/closed about the role. It is less ethical than overt
observation = this arises ethical
issues such as consent, deception
and privacy
Participant and Non-participant observation
✓ The data is more likely to be
In participant observation, the accurate (valid) = researcher gets
researcher becomes the part of the group their first-hand experiences into
and participate in group activities. the participants’ real life.
Participant Tries to see the world through the eyes of The data collected may be
observation participants in order to gain first-hand inaccurate (lack validity) =
experience. researcher gets too involved with
the group and find it difficult to
observe the group objectively.
✓ The data is likely to be accurate
In non-participant observation, the (valid) = easier to objectively
researcher is detached from the group observe and record their
and does not become part of the group behaviours since the researcher
being observed. would be emotionally detached
from the participants. Participants
Instead, they just watch the group from a might not be aware that they are
Non- distance. being observed so their
participant
behaviours are more likely to be
observation
natural.
The data collected may be
inaccurate = the actual meaning of
a participant’s behaviour may be
unclear from a distance and could
be interpreted incorrectly.
5
, Recording data from an observation
Structured and Unstructured observation
Unstructured observation – the researcher records everything that they see
Structured observation – the researcher is prepared for what they are going to see and record
behaviours systematically.
When carrying out a structured observation, the researchers must decide which
behavioural categories and sampling procedure to use.
Behavioural categories
Behavioural categories involve operationalising target behaviours so that it is precisely measurable
and made observable.
Sampling procedures
Sampling procedures decide how the occurrence of behaviour is to be recorded.
Event sampling: - behaviour is recorded every time it occurs
- good for observing individuals or small groups
Time sampling: - record behaviour of each of the participants at regular intervals (e.g. five minutes)
- good with dealing with large groups of people
6
