ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY The Unity of Form and Function Ninth Edition

ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY The Unity of Form and Function Ninth Edition sal56006_fm_ 1 11/26/19 7:07 PM ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: THE UNITY OF FORM AND FUNCTION, NINTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright ©2021 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions ©2018, 2015, and 2012. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LWI ISBN 978-1-260-25600-0 (bound edition) MHID 1-260-25600-6 (bound edition) ISBN 978-1-260-79162-4 (loose-leaf edition) MHID 1-260-79162-9 (loose-leaf edition) Senior Portfolio Manager: Matthew Garcia Senior Product Developer: Donna Nemmers Marketing Manager: Valerie Kramer Senior Content Project Manager: Vicki Krug Lead Content Project Manager: Brent dela Cruz Senior Buyer: Sandy Ludovissy Designer: Egzon Shaqiri Lead Content Licensing Specialist: Lori Hancock Cover Image: Mike Kemp/Rubberball/Getty Compositor: MPS Limited All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Cataloging-in-Publication Data has been requested from the Library of Congress. The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites. sal56006_fm_ 2 11/26/19 7:07 PM BRIEF CONTENTS About the Authors iv PART ONE ORGANIZATION OF THE BODY 1 1 Major Themes of Anatomy and Physiology 1 ATLAS A General Orientation to Human Anatomy 27 2 The Chemistry of Life 40 3 Cellular Form and Function 74 4 Genes and Cellular Function 109 5 The Human Tissues 137 PART TWO SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT 174 6 The Integumentary System 174 7 Bone Tissue 198 8 The Skeletal System 223 9 Joints 267 10 The Muscular System 299 ATLAS B Regional and Surface Anatomy 362 11 Muscular Tissue 384 PART THREE INTERNAL COORDINATION AND CONTROL 420 12 Nervous Tissue 420 13 The Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and Somatic Reflexes 459 14 The Brain and Cranial Nerves 492 15 The Autonomic Nervous System and Visceral Reflexes 542 16 Sense Organs 563 17 The Endocrine System 612 PART FOUR CIRCULATION AND DEFENSE 655 18 The Circulatory System: Blood 655 19 The Circulatory System: Heart 689 20 The Circulatory System: Blood Vessels and Circulation 724 21 The Lymphatic and Immune Systems 782 PART FIVE INTAKE AND OUTPUT 825 22 The Respiratory System 825 23 The Urinary System 866 24 Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid–Base Balance 901 25 The Digestive System 925 26 Nutrition and Metabolism 974 PART SIX REPRODUCTION AND THE LIFE CYCLE 1007 27 The Male Reproductive System 1007 28 The Female Reproductive System 1037 29 Human Development and Aging 1075 APPENDIX A: Answer Keys A-1 APPENDIX B: Symbols, Weights, and Measures A-14 APPENDIX C: Periodic Table of the Elements A-16 APPENDIX D: The Genetic Code and Amino Acids A-17 APPENDIX E: Medical Word Roots and Affixes A-19 Glossary G-1 Index I-1 iii sal56006_fm_ 3 11/26/19 7:07 PM ABOUT THE AUTHORS KENNETH S. SALADIN is Distinguished Professor of Biology, Emeritus, at Georgia College in Milledgeville, Georgia. He received his B.S. in zoology at Michigan State University and a Ph.D. in parasitology at Florida State University, with interests especially in the sensory ecology of freshwater invertebrates. He joined the Georgia College faculty in 1977. His courses included human anatomy and physiology, introduction to medical physiology, histology, general zoology, parasitology, animal behavior, biomedical etymology, study abroad in the Galápagos Islands, and premedical seminars, among others. Ken was recognized as “most significant undergraduate mentor” nine times over the years by outstanding students inducted into Phi Kappa Phi. He received the university’s Excellence in Research and Publication Award for the first edition of this book, and was named Distinguished Professor in 2001. Ken is a member of the Human Anatomy and Physiology Society, American Association for Anatomy, American Physiological Society, Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology, Authors’ Guild, and Textbook and Academic Authors Association. He served as a developmental reviewer and wrote supplements for several other McGraw-Hill anatomy and physiology textbooks for a number of years before becoming a textbook writer. Ken has used the earnings from his textbooks to support the Charles Darwin Research Station and fund ecosystem conservation and restoration in the Galápagos Islands, to remodel and equip the Georgia College anatomy laboratories, to fund the Honors Program, and to endow student scholarships, the William Harvey Chair in Biomedical Science, the Annual William Harvey Lecture in Medicine and Society, and the William P. Wall Museum of Natural History. Ken and his wife Diane have two grown children and a nature-loving grandson in North Carolina. CHRISTINA A. GAN, digital coauthor for Connect®, has been teaching anatomy and physiology, microbiology, and general biology at Highline College in Des Moines, Washington, since 2004. Before that, she taught at Rogue Community College in Medford, Oregon, for 6 years. She earned her M.A. in biology from Humboldt State University, researching the genetic variation of mitochondrial DNA in various salmonid species, and is a member of the Human Anatomy and Physiology Society. When she is not in the classroom or developing digital media, she is climbing, mountaineering, skiing, kayaking, sailing, cycling, and mountain biking throughout the Pacific Northwest. HEATHER N. CUSHMAN, digital coauthor for Connect®, teaches anatomy and physiology at Tacoma Community College in Tacoma, Washington, and is a member of the Human Anatomy and Physiology Society. She received her Ph.D. in neuroscience from the University of Minnesota in 2002, and completed a postdoctoral fellowship at the Vollum Institute at Oregon Health & Science University in Portland, Oregon, where she studied sensory transduction and the cellular and molecular mechanisms of muscle pain. She currently resides in Tacoma, Washington, and enjoys climbing, camping, and hiking with her husband Ken and their daughter Annika. iv © Tim Vacula © Chris Gan/Yuen Lui Studios © JC Penney Portraits/Lifetouch Portrait Studios, Inc. sal56006_fm_ 4 11/26/19 7:07 PM About the Authors iv PART ONE ORGANIZATION OF THE BODY CHAPTER 1 MAJOR THEMES OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1 1.1 The Scope of Anatomy and Physiology 2 1.2 The Origins of Biomedical Science 3 1.3 Scientific Method 6 1.4 Human Origins and Adaptations 9 1.5 Human Structure 11 1.6 Human Function 13 1.7 The Language of Medicine 19 1.8 Review of Major Themes 21 STUDY GUIDE 24 ATLAS A GENERAL ORIENTATION TO HUMAN ANATOMY 27 A.1 General Anatomical Terminology 28 A.2 Major Body Regions 29 A.3 Body Cavities and Membranes 31 A.4 Organ Systems 35 STUDY GUIDE 38 CHAPTER 2 THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE 40 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules 41 2.2 Water and Mixtures 48 2.3 Energy and Chemical Reactions 52 2.4 Organic Compounds 55 STUDY GUIDE 71 CHAPTER 3 CELLULAR FORM AND FUNCTION 74 3.1 Concepts of Cellular Structure 75 3.2 The Cell Surface 78 3.3 Membrane Transport 87 3.4 The Cell Interior 96 STUDY GUIDE 106 CHAPTER 4 GENES AND CELLULAR FUNCTION 109 4.1 DNA and RNA—The Nucleic Acids 110 4.2 Genes and Their Action 114 4.3 DNA Replication and the Cell Cycle 123 4.4 Chromosomes and Heredity 128 STUDY GUIDE 134 CHAPTER 5 THE HUMAN TISSUES 137 5.1 The Study of Tissues 138 5.2 Epithelial Tissue 141 5.3 Connective Tissue 148 5.4 Nervous and Muscular Tissues— Excitable Tissues 157 5.5 Cellular Junctions, Glands, and Membranes 160 5.6 Tissue Growth, Development, Repair, and Degeneration 165 STUDY GUIDE 171 PART TWO SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT CHAPTER 6 THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM 174 6.1 Skin and Subcutaneous Tissue 175 6.2 Hair and Nails 183 6.3 Cutaneous Glands 187 6.4 Skin Disorders 190 CONNECTIVE ISSUES 195 STUDY GUIDE 196 CHAPTER 7 BONE TISSUE 198 7.1 Tissues and Organs of the Skeletal System 199 7.2 Histology of Osseous Tissue 201 7.3 Bone Development 206 7.4 Physiology of Osseous Tissue 211 7.5 Bone Disorders 216 CONNECTIVE ISSUES 220 STUDY GUIDE 221 CHAPTER 8 THE SKELETAL SYSTEM 223 8.1 Overview of the Skeleton 224 8.2 The Skull 227 8.3 The Vertebral Column and Thoracic Cage 239 8.4 The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb 249 8.5 The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb 254 STUDY GUIDE 264 CHAPTER 9 JOINTS 267 9.1 Joints and Their Classification 268 9.2 Synovial Joints 272 9.3 Anatomy of Selected Diarthroses 285 STUDY GUIDE 296 CHAPTER 10 THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM 299 10.1 Structural and Functional Organization of Muscles 300 10.2 Muscles of the Head and Neck 308 10.3 Muscles of the Trunk 318 CONTENTS v sal56006_fm_ 5 11/26/19 7:07 PM 10.4 Muscles Acting on the Shoulder and Upper Limb 329 10.5 Muscles Acting on the Hip and Lower Limb 344 STUDY GUIDE 359 ATLAS B REGIONAL AND SURFACE ANATOMY 362 B.1 Regional Anatomy 363 B.2 The Importance of Surface Anatomy 363 B.3 Learning Strategy 363 CHAPTER 11 MUSCULAR TISSUE 384 11.1 Types and Characteristics of Muscular Tissue 385 11.2 Skeletal Muscle Cells 386 11.3 The Nerve–Muscle Relationship 391 11.4 Behavior of Skeletal Muscle Fibers 394 11.5 Behavior of Whole Muscles 401 11.6 Muscle Metabolism 404 11.7 Cardiac and Smooth Muscle 409 CONNECTIVE ISSUES 416 STUDY GUIDE 417 PART THREE INTERNAL COORDINATION AND CONTROL CHAPTER 12 NERVOUS TISSUE 420 12.1 Overview of the Nervous System 421 12.2 Properties of Neurons 422 12.3 Supportive Cells 426 12.4 Electrophysiology of Neurons 433 12.5 Synapses 440 12.6 Neural Integration 446 CONNECTIVE ISSUES 455 STUDY GUIDE 456 CHAPTER 13 THE SPINAL CORD, SPINAL NERVES, AND SOMATIC REFLEXES 459 13.1 The Spinal Cord 460 13.2 The Spinal Nerves 468 13.3 Somatic Reflexes 482 STUDY GUIDE 489 CHAPTER 14 THE BRAIN AND CRANIAL NERVES 492 14.1 Overview of the Brain 493 14.2 Meninges, Ventricles, Cerebrospinal Fluid, and Blood Supply 497 14.3 The Hindbrain and Midbrain 503 14.4 The Forebrain 509 14.5 Integrative Functions of the Brain 516 14.6 The Cranial Nerves 527 STUDY GUIDE 539 CHAPTER 15 THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM AND VISCERAL REFLEXES 542 15.1 General Properties of the Autonomic Nervous System 543 15.2 Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous System 546 15.3 Autonomic Effects on Target Organs 553 15.4 Central Control of Autonomic Function 557 STUDY GUIDE 560 CHAPTER 16 SENSE ORGANS 563 16.1 Properties and Types of Sensory Receptors 564 16.2 The General Senses 566 16.3 The Chemical Senses 572 16.4 Hearing and Equilibrium 577 16.5 Vision 591 STUDY GUIDE 609 CHAPTER 17 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 612 17.1 Overview of the Endocrine System 613 17.2 The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland 616 17.3 Other Endocrine Glands 623 17.4 Hormones and Their Actions 633 17.5 Stress and Adaptation 642 17.6 Eicosanoids and Other Signaling Molecules 643 17.7 Endocrine Disorders 644 CONNECTIVE ISSUES 651 STUDY GUIDE 652 PART FOUR CIRCULATION AND DEFENSE CHAPTER 18 THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM: BLOOD 655 18.1 Introduction 656 18.2 Erythrocytes 661 18.3 Blood Types 667 18.4 Leukocytes 672 18.5 Platelets and the Control of Bleeding 678 STUDY GUIDE 686 CHAPTER 19 THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM: HEART 689 19.1 Overview of the Cardiovascular System 690 19.2 Gross Anatomy of the Heart 692 19.3 Cardiac Muscle and the Cardiac Conduction System 700 19.4 Electrical and Contractile Activity of the Heart 702 19.5 Blood Flow, Heart Sounds, and the Cardiac Cycle 707 19.6 Regulation of Cardiac Output 713 STUDY GUIDE 721 CHAPTER 20 THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM: BLOOD VESSELS AND CIRCULATION 724 20.1 General Anatomy of the Blood Vessels 725 20.2 Blood Pressure, Resistance, and Flow 733 20.3 Capillaries and Fluid Exchange 740 20.4 Venous Return and Circulatory Shock 744 vi sal56006_fm_ 6 11/26/19 7:07 PM 20.5 Special Circulatory Routes 746 20.6 Anatomy of the Pulmonary Circuit 747 20.7 Systemic Vessels of the Axial Region 748 20.8 Systemic Vessels of the Appendicular Region 766 CONNECTIVE ISSUES 777 STUDY GUIDE 778 CHAPTER 21 THE LYMPHATIC AND IMMUNE SYSTEMS 782 21.1 The Lymphatic System 783 21.2 Innate Immunity 795 21.3 Adaptive Immunity— General Aspects 803 21.4 Cellular Immunity 808 21.5 Humoral Immunity 811 21.6 Immune System Disorders 815 CONNECTIVE ISSUES 821 STUDY GUIDE 822 PART FIVE INTAKE AND OUTPUT CHAPTER 22 THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 825 22.1 Anatomy of the Respiratory System 826 22.2 Pulmonary Ventilation 837 22.3 Gas Exchange and Transport 848 22.4 Respiratory Disorders 858 CONNECTIVE ISSUES 862 STUDY GUIDE 863 CHAPTER 23 THE URINARY SYSTEM 866 23.1 Functions of the Urinary System 867 23.2 Anatomy of the Kidney 869 23.3 Urine Formation I: Glomerular Filtration 875 23.4 Urine Formation II: Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion 881 23.5 Urine Formation III: Water Conservation 885 23.6 Urine and Renal Function Tests 888 23.7 Urine Storage and Elimination 891 CONNECTIVE ISSUES 897 STUDY GUIDE 898 CHAPTER 24 FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID–BASE BALANCE 901 24.1 Fluid Balance 902 24.2 Electrolyte Balance 908 24.3 Acid–Base Balance 914 STUDY GUIDE 922 CHAPTER 25 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 925 25.1 General Anatomy and Digestive Processes 926 25.2 The Mouth Through Esophagus 930 25.3 The Stomach 937 25.4 The Liver, Gallbladder, and Pancreas 946 25.5 The Small Intestine 952 25.6 Chemical Digestion and Absorption 956 25.7 The Large Intestine 963 CONNECTIVE ISSUES 970 STUDY GUIDE 971 CHAPTER 26 NUTRITION AND METABOLISM 974 26.1 Nutrition 975 26.2 Carbohydrate Metabolism 986 26.3 Lipid and Protein Metabolism 993 26.4 Metabolic States and Metabolic Rate 997 26.5 Body Heat and Thermoregulation 999 STUDY GUIDE 1004 PART SIX REPRODUCTION AND THE LIFE CYCLE CHAPTER 27 THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 1007 27.1 Sexual Reproduction and Development 100