NIET-WETENSCHAPPELIJKE METHODEN .................................................................................................................. 7
1. VASTHOUDENDHEID (TENACITY) .............................................................................................................................. 7
2. INTUÏTIE ............................................................................................................................................................. 7
3. AUTORITEIT ........................................................................................................................................................ 7
4. RATIONALISME .................................................................................................................................................... 8
5. EMPIRIE ............................................................................................................................................................. 8
WETENSCHAPPELIJKE METHODE ............................................................................................................................. 9
STAP 1: OBSERVATIE ................................................................................................................................................... 9
STAP 2: HYPOTHESEN ................................................................................................................................................. 9
STAP 3: PREDICTIES .................................................................................................................................................... 9
STAP 4: EVALUEREN.................................................................................................................................................. 10
STAP 5: ONDERSTEUNEN, WEERLEGGEN OF HERSPECIFIËREN .............................................................................................. 10
DRIE BELANGRIJKE PRINCIPES VAN DE WETENSCHAPPELIJKE METHODE ................................................................................... 10
DE EMPIRISCHE CYCLUS......................................................................................................................................... 11
STAP 1: ONDERZOEKSIDEE ......................................................................................................................................... 11
STAP 2: HYPOTHESE.................................................................................................................................................. 11
STAP 3: VARIABELEN................................................................................................................................................. 11
STAP 4: PARTICIPANTEN ............................................................................................................................................ 11
STAP 5: ONDERZOEKSSTRATEGIE ................................................................................................................................. 12
STAP 6 – 9 .............................................................................................................................................................. 12
STAP 10: VERFIJN OF HERFORMULEER........................................................................................................................... 12
BESLUIT ................................................................................................................................................................. 12
1. LOGISCH........................................................................................................................................................... 13
2. TOETSBAAR....................................................................................................................................................... 13
3. WEERLEGBAAR .................................................................................................................................................. 14
4. POSITIEF .......................................................................................................................................................... 14
VARIABELEN DEFINIËREN EN METEN ..................................................................................................................... 15
VOORBEELD ............................................................................................................................................................. 15
CONSTRUCTEN EN OPERATIONELE DEFINITIES....................................................................................................... 16
VOORBEELD ............................................................................................................................................................. 16
VALIDITEIT EN BETROUWBAARHEID ...................................................................................................................... 17
SCATTER PLOT........................................................................................................................................................... 17
CORRELATIE ............................................................................................................................................................. 17
1. VALIDITEIT ........................................................................................................................................................... 18
2. BETROUWBAARHEID ............................................................................................................................................... 19
RELATIE VALIDITEIT – BETROUWBAARHEID ...................................................................................................................... 19
1
,MEETSCHALEN ...................................................................................................................................................... 20
NOMINALE MEETSCHAAL ............................................................................................................................................. 20
ORDINALE MEETSCHAAL .............................................................................................................................................. 20
INTERVAL MEETSCHAAL ............................................................................................................................................... 20
RATIO MEETSCHAAL ................................................................................................................................................... 21
INTERVAL VERSUS RATIO MEETSCHAAL ........................................................................................................................... 21
CONCLUSIE MEETSCHALEN ........................................................................................................................................... 22
MEETMODALITEITEN ............................................................................................................................................. 22
1. ZELFRAPPORTAGE .................................................................................................................................................. 22
2. FYSIOLOGIE .......................................................................................................................................................... 23
3. GEDRAGSMATEN ................................................................................................................................................... 23
ANDERE ASPECTEN VAN METEN ............................................................................................................................ 23
1. MULTIPELE METINGEN ............................................................................................................................................ 23
2. SENSITIVITEIT ........................................................................................................................................................ 23
3. ARTEFACTEN ......................................................................................................................................................... 24
BESLUIT ................................................................................................................................................................. 24
STEEKPROEFTREKKING .......................................................................................................................................... 25
STREEKPROEFTREKKING .............................................................................................................................................. 25
PROBABILITY SAMPLING ....................................................................................................................................... 27
1. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING..................................................................................................................................... 27
2. SYSTEMATISCHE SAMPLING ...................................................................................................................................... 28
3. GESTRATIFICEERDE RANDOM SAMPLING...................................................................................................................... 28
4. PROPORTIONELE GESTRATIFICEERDE RANDOM SAMPLING ............................................................................................... 29
5. CLUSTER SAMPLING ................................................................................................................................................ 29
NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING ................................................................................................................................ 29
1. CONVENIENCE SAMPLING ........................................................................................................................................ 29
2. QUOTA SAMPLING ................................................................................................................................................. 30
BESLUIT ................................................................................................................................................................. 30
INLEIDING ............................................................................................................................................................. 31
ONDERZOEKSSTRATEGIEËN ................................................................................................................................... 31
1. BESCHRIJVEND ...................................................................................................................................................... 31
2. CORRELATIONEEL ................................................................................................................................................... 32
3. EXPERIMENTEEL .................................................................................................................................................... 32
4. QUASI-EXPERIMENTEEL ........................................................................................................................................... 33
2
,5. NON-EXPERIMENTEEL ............................................................................................................................................. 33
CORRELATIONEEL VERSUS NON-EXPERIMENTEEL ONDERZOEK .............................................................................................. 33
ONDERZOEKSSTRATEGIEËN .......................................................................................................................................... 33
EXTERNE EN INTERNE VALIDITEIT .......................................................................................................................... 34
1. EXTERNE VALIDITEIT ............................................................................................................................................... 34
2. INTERNE VALIDITEIT ................................................................................................................................................ 34
BEDREIGINGEN VAN VALIDITEIT ............................................................................................................................ 35
BEDREIGINGEN VAN EXTERNE VALIDITEIT ........................................................................................................................ 35
BEDREIGINGEN VAN INTERNE VALIDITEIT ......................................................................................................................... 36
MEER OVER INTERNE EN EXTERNE VALIDITEIT ................................................................................................................... 37
BESLUIT ................................................................................................................................................................. 38
OORZAAK-GEVOLG RELATIES................................................................................................................................. 39
ELEMENTEN VAN EEN EXPERIMENT ...................................................................................................................... 40
1. MANIPULATIE ....................................................................................................................................................... 40
2. CONTROLE ........................................................................................................................................................... 41
BIJKOMENDE VARIABELEN CONTROLEREN ............................................................................................................ 41
1. VARIABELE CONSTANT HOUDEN ................................................................................................................................ 42
2. MATCHING ........................................................................................................................................................... 42
3. RANDOMISEREN .................................................................................................................................................... 42
DATASTRUCTUUR EN CONTROLE ........................................................................................................................... 43
CONTROLE CONDITIES ........................................................................................................................................... 43
MANIPULATIE CHECKS .......................................................................................................................................... 44
EXTERNE VALIDITEIT VERHOGEN ........................................................................................................................... 44
BESLUIT ................................................................................................................................................................. 45
EXPERIMENTELE ONDERZOEKSSTRATEGIE ............................................................................................................. 46
TUSSEN-SUBJECT DESIGN ...................................................................................................................................... 46
KARAKTERISTIEKEN TUSSEN-SUBJECT DESIGN ................................................................................................................... 46
VOOR- EN NADELEN ................................................................................................................................................... 47
INDIVIDUELE VERSCHILLEN ........................................................................................................................................... 47
INDIVIDUELE VERSCHILLEN ALS CONFOUNDERS ................................................................................................................. 47
INDIVIDUELE VERSCHILLEN EN VARIABILITEIT .................................................................................................................... 48
ANDERE BEDREIGINGEN VAN INTERNE VALIDITEIT ............................................................................................................. 49
3
, BINNEN-SUBJECT DESIGN ...................................................................................................................................... 50
KARAKTERISTIEKEN .................................................................................................................................................... 50
BEDREIGINGEN VOOR INTERNE VALIDITEIT ....................................................................................................................... 50
OMGAAN MET TIJDSGERELATEERDE BEDREIGINGEN ........................................................................................................... 52
VOOR- EN NADELEN BINNEN-SUBJECT DESIGN .................................................................................................................. 54
TUSSEN- VERSUS BINNEN-SUBJECT DESIGN ........................................................................................................... 54
DATASTRUCTUUR ...................................................................................................................................................... 54
NON- EN QUASI-EXPERIMENTELE ONDERZOEKSSTRATEGIEËN ............................................................................... 55
TUSSEN-SUBJECT DESIGNS .................................................................................................................................... 56
1. DIFFERENTIËLE ONDERZOEKSDESIGN ....................................................................................................................... 56
2. POSTTEST ONLY NIET-EQUIVALENTE CONTROLE GROEP DESIGN ..................................................................................... 56
3. PRETEST-POSTTEST NIET-EQUIVALENTE CONTROLE GROEP DESIGN ................................................................................. 57
BINNEN-SUBJECT DESIGN ...................................................................................................................................... 57
1. PRETEST-POSTTEST DESIGN ................................................................................................................................... 58
2. TIME-SERIES DESIGN ........................................................................................................................................... 58
DESIGNS VOOR ONTWIKKELINGSONDERZOEK ....................................................................................................... 59
1. CROSS-SECTIONEEL DESIGN................................................................................................................................... 59
2. LONGITUDINAAL DESIGN ...................................................................................................................................... 60
OVERZICHT............................................................................................................................................................ 60
BESLUIT ................................................................................................................................................................. 61
INLEIDING ............................................................................................................................................................. 62
HOOFDEFFECTEN EN INTERACTIES......................................................................................................................... 63
TYPES FACTORIËLE DESIGNS ................................................................................................................................. 65
BESLUIT ................................................................................................................................................................. 66
WAT IS WETENSCHAP? .......................................................................................................................................... 67
PUBLICEREN .......................................................................................................................................................... 67
OPEN SCIENCE ....................................................................................................................................................... 68
P-VALUE ................................................................................................................................................................ 68
4
1. VASTHOUDENDHEID (TENACITY) .............................................................................................................................. 7
2. INTUÏTIE ............................................................................................................................................................. 7
3. AUTORITEIT ........................................................................................................................................................ 7
4. RATIONALISME .................................................................................................................................................... 8
5. EMPIRIE ............................................................................................................................................................. 8
WETENSCHAPPELIJKE METHODE ............................................................................................................................. 9
STAP 1: OBSERVATIE ................................................................................................................................................... 9
STAP 2: HYPOTHESEN ................................................................................................................................................. 9
STAP 3: PREDICTIES .................................................................................................................................................... 9
STAP 4: EVALUEREN.................................................................................................................................................. 10
STAP 5: ONDERSTEUNEN, WEERLEGGEN OF HERSPECIFIËREN .............................................................................................. 10
DRIE BELANGRIJKE PRINCIPES VAN DE WETENSCHAPPELIJKE METHODE ................................................................................... 10
DE EMPIRISCHE CYCLUS......................................................................................................................................... 11
STAP 1: ONDERZOEKSIDEE ......................................................................................................................................... 11
STAP 2: HYPOTHESE.................................................................................................................................................. 11
STAP 3: VARIABELEN................................................................................................................................................. 11
STAP 4: PARTICIPANTEN ............................................................................................................................................ 11
STAP 5: ONDERZOEKSSTRATEGIE ................................................................................................................................. 12
STAP 6 – 9 .............................................................................................................................................................. 12
STAP 10: VERFIJN OF HERFORMULEER........................................................................................................................... 12
BESLUIT ................................................................................................................................................................. 12
1. LOGISCH........................................................................................................................................................... 13
2. TOETSBAAR....................................................................................................................................................... 13
3. WEERLEGBAAR .................................................................................................................................................. 14
4. POSITIEF .......................................................................................................................................................... 14
VARIABELEN DEFINIËREN EN METEN ..................................................................................................................... 15
VOORBEELD ............................................................................................................................................................. 15
CONSTRUCTEN EN OPERATIONELE DEFINITIES....................................................................................................... 16
VOORBEELD ............................................................................................................................................................. 16
VALIDITEIT EN BETROUWBAARHEID ...................................................................................................................... 17
SCATTER PLOT........................................................................................................................................................... 17
CORRELATIE ............................................................................................................................................................. 17
1. VALIDITEIT ........................................................................................................................................................... 18
2. BETROUWBAARHEID ............................................................................................................................................... 19
RELATIE VALIDITEIT – BETROUWBAARHEID ...................................................................................................................... 19
1
,MEETSCHALEN ...................................................................................................................................................... 20
NOMINALE MEETSCHAAL ............................................................................................................................................. 20
ORDINALE MEETSCHAAL .............................................................................................................................................. 20
INTERVAL MEETSCHAAL ............................................................................................................................................... 20
RATIO MEETSCHAAL ................................................................................................................................................... 21
INTERVAL VERSUS RATIO MEETSCHAAL ........................................................................................................................... 21
CONCLUSIE MEETSCHALEN ........................................................................................................................................... 22
MEETMODALITEITEN ............................................................................................................................................. 22
1. ZELFRAPPORTAGE .................................................................................................................................................. 22
2. FYSIOLOGIE .......................................................................................................................................................... 23
3. GEDRAGSMATEN ................................................................................................................................................... 23
ANDERE ASPECTEN VAN METEN ............................................................................................................................ 23
1. MULTIPELE METINGEN ............................................................................................................................................ 23
2. SENSITIVITEIT ........................................................................................................................................................ 23
3. ARTEFACTEN ......................................................................................................................................................... 24
BESLUIT ................................................................................................................................................................. 24
STEEKPROEFTREKKING .......................................................................................................................................... 25
STREEKPROEFTREKKING .............................................................................................................................................. 25
PROBABILITY SAMPLING ....................................................................................................................................... 27
1. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING..................................................................................................................................... 27
2. SYSTEMATISCHE SAMPLING ...................................................................................................................................... 28
3. GESTRATIFICEERDE RANDOM SAMPLING...................................................................................................................... 28
4. PROPORTIONELE GESTRATIFICEERDE RANDOM SAMPLING ............................................................................................... 29
5. CLUSTER SAMPLING ................................................................................................................................................ 29
NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING ................................................................................................................................ 29
1. CONVENIENCE SAMPLING ........................................................................................................................................ 29
2. QUOTA SAMPLING ................................................................................................................................................. 30
BESLUIT ................................................................................................................................................................. 30
INLEIDING ............................................................................................................................................................. 31
ONDERZOEKSSTRATEGIEËN ................................................................................................................................... 31
1. BESCHRIJVEND ...................................................................................................................................................... 31
2. CORRELATIONEEL ................................................................................................................................................... 32
3. EXPERIMENTEEL .................................................................................................................................................... 32
4. QUASI-EXPERIMENTEEL ........................................................................................................................................... 33
2
,5. NON-EXPERIMENTEEL ............................................................................................................................................. 33
CORRELATIONEEL VERSUS NON-EXPERIMENTEEL ONDERZOEK .............................................................................................. 33
ONDERZOEKSSTRATEGIEËN .......................................................................................................................................... 33
EXTERNE EN INTERNE VALIDITEIT .......................................................................................................................... 34
1. EXTERNE VALIDITEIT ............................................................................................................................................... 34
2. INTERNE VALIDITEIT ................................................................................................................................................ 34
BEDREIGINGEN VAN VALIDITEIT ............................................................................................................................ 35
BEDREIGINGEN VAN EXTERNE VALIDITEIT ........................................................................................................................ 35
BEDREIGINGEN VAN INTERNE VALIDITEIT ......................................................................................................................... 36
MEER OVER INTERNE EN EXTERNE VALIDITEIT ................................................................................................................... 37
BESLUIT ................................................................................................................................................................. 38
OORZAAK-GEVOLG RELATIES................................................................................................................................. 39
ELEMENTEN VAN EEN EXPERIMENT ...................................................................................................................... 40
1. MANIPULATIE ....................................................................................................................................................... 40
2. CONTROLE ........................................................................................................................................................... 41
BIJKOMENDE VARIABELEN CONTROLEREN ............................................................................................................ 41
1. VARIABELE CONSTANT HOUDEN ................................................................................................................................ 42
2. MATCHING ........................................................................................................................................................... 42
3. RANDOMISEREN .................................................................................................................................................... 42
DATASTRUCTUUR EN CONTROLE ........................................................................................................................... 43
CONTROLE CONDITIES ........................................................................................................................................... 43
MANIPULATIE CHECKS .......................................................................................................................................... 44
EXTERNE VALIDITEIT VERHOGEN ........................................................................................................................... 44
BESLUIT ................................................................................................................................................................. 45
EXPERIMENTELE ONDERZOEKSSTRATEGIE ............................................................................................................. 46
TUSSEN-SUBJECT DESIGN ...................................................................................................................................... 46
KARAKTERISTIEKEN TUSSEN-SUBJECT DESIGN ................................................................................................................... 46
VOOR- EN NADELEN ................................................................................................................................................... 47
INDIVIDUELE VERSCHILLEN ........................................................................................................................................... 47
INDIVIDUELE VERSCHILLEN ALS CONFOUNDERS ................................................................................................................. 47
INDIVIDUELE VERSCHILLEN EN VARIABILITEIT .................................................................................................................... 48
ANDERE BEDREIGINGEN VAN INTERNE VALIDITEIT ............................................................................................................. 49
3
, BINNEN-SUBJECT DESIGN ...................................................................................................................................... 50
KARAKTERISTIEKEN .................................................................................................................................................... 50
BEDREIGINGEN VOOR INTERNE VALIDITEIT ....................................................................................................................... 50
OMGAAN MET TIJDSGERELATEERDE BEDREIGINGEN ........................................................................................................... 52
VOOR- EN NADELEN BINNEN-SUBJECT DESIGN .................................................................................................................. 54
TUSSEN- VERSUS BINNEN-SUBJECT DESIGN ........................................................................................................... 54
DATASTRUCTUUR ...................................................................................................................................................... 54
NON- EN QUASI-EXPERIMENTELE ONDERZOEKSSTRATEGIEËN ............................................................................... 55
TUSSEN-SUBJECT DESIGNS .................................................................................................................................... 56
1. DIFFERENTIËLE ONDERZOEKSDESIGN ....................................................................................................................... 56
2. POSTTEST ONLY NIET-EQUIVALENTE CONTROLE GROEP DESIGN ..................................................................................... 56
3. PRETEST-POSTTEST NIET-EQUIVALENTE CONTROLE GROEP DESIGN ................................................................................. 57
BINNEN-SUBJECT DESIGN ...................................................................................................................................... 57
1. PRETEST-POSTTEST DESIGN ................................................................................................................................... 58
2. TIME-SERIES DESIGN ........................................................................................................................................... 58
DESIGNS VOOR ONTWIKKELINGSONDERZOEK ....................................................................................................... 59
1. CROSS-SECTIONEEL DESIGN................................................................................................................................... 59
2. LONGITUDINAAL DESIGN ...................................................................................................................................... 60
OVERZICHT............................................................................................................................................................ 60
BESLUIT ................................................................................................................................................................. 61
INLEIDING ............................................................................................................................................................. 62
HOOFDEFFECTEN EN INTERACTIES......................................................................................................................... 63
TYPES FACTORIËLE DESIGNS ................................................................................................................................. 65
BESLUIT ................................................................................................................................................................. 66
WAT IS WETENSCHAP? .......................................................................................................................................... 67
PUBLICEREN .......................................................................................................................................................... 67
OPEN SCIENCE ....................................................................................................................................................... 68
P-VALUE ................................................................................................................................................................ 68
4
