Essay: The origins of psychology
AO1 - Scientific method: the use of investigative
methods that are objective, systematic and
replicable – hypotheses can be formulated and
tested using these methods
- Empiricism: the idea that all knowledge is derived
from sensory experience, characterised by the
use of scientific methods in psychology –
behaviour has a cause and it can be predicted
- Wilhelm Wundt was the first psychologist, and
decided human behaviour and the mind can be
studied scientifically
- His first study was a study of reaction time,
conducted using systematic methodology
- He coined introspection – the process by which an
individual gains knowledge about their own
emotional states as a result of the examination of
conscious thoughts and feelings e.g. a participant
would be shown a stimulus and asked to
articulate all thoughts and feelings about it
AO3 x 1 - A limitation of introspection is that it is highly
subjective
- While Wundt emphasised the importance of well-
trained researchers, the conclusions made from
the thoughts and feelings expressed by the
participant is based on personal inferences rather
than objective conclusions
- Therefore introspection can often fail to conform
to the requirements of the scientific method
AO3 x 2 - Introspection can force people to express
thoughts and feelings about things they don’t
have opinions on
- If someone is forced to do this, the thoughts and
feelings they express are likely to be highly
artificial, then reducing the validity of
introspection
- However the artificial thoughts arguably still
provide insight into someone’s mind
AO3 x 3 - Introspection is still used in psychology today
- A study was conducted in which a bell was rung at
random points throughout the school day and
students were asked to articulate their thoughts
and feelings about what they were doing –
introspective inferences found students were
happiest when being challenged
- Therefore positive implications for psychology
AO3 x 4 - Introspection was a gateway to scientific
psychological studies
, - While introspection itself has many
methodological flaws, it encouraged other
researchers to begin testing psychological
theories, then aiding the emergence of
psychology as a science
Essay: The behaviourist approach
AO1 - Behaviourism: the belief that behaviour can be
learned through conditioning without the
consideration of thoughts and feelings
- Classical conditioning: learning through
association - when a NS is repeatedly presented
alongside a UCS which elicits a UCR, so the NS
becomes the CS which leads to the now CR
- Pavlov’s dog study
- Operant conditioning: learning through
reinforcement and punishment
- Skinner’s rats study
- Positive reinforcement: a desired behaviour is
rewarded, and therefore encouraged, by a
pleasant stimulus
- Negative reinforcement: a desired behaviour is
rewarded, and therefore encouraged, by the
removal of a negative stimulus
- Generalisation, discrimination, high order
conditioning, extinction, spontaneous recovery
AO3 x 1 - Behaviourism has positive implications for society
- By understanding phobias can be learned via the
two-process model, they can also be treated
according to behaviourism (flooding and
systematic desensitisation)
- Therefore can be used to treat phobias so is
beneficial to several people
- However not suitable for all phobias
AO3 x 2 - Behaviourist values are reliant on animal studies
- Both operant conditioning and classical
conditioning are based on animal studies
(Skinner’s rats and Pavlov’s dogs)
- Reduced validity as animal behaviour cannot be
applied directly to human behaviour due to
biological, social, cognitive differences etc.
- However using animal studies is an effective way
to bypass ethical concerns and support valuable
theories
AO3 x 3 - Utilises scientific methodology
- Most behaviourist theories are heavily reliant on
systematic, objectively formed and testable
hypotheses
AO1 - Scientific method: the use of investigative
methods that are objective, systematic and
replicable – hypotheses can be formulated and
tested using these methods
- Empiricism: the idea that all knowledge is derived
from sensory experience, characterised by the
use of scientific methods in psychology –
behaviour has a cause and it can be predicted
- Wilhelm Wundt was the first psychologist, and
decided human behaviour and the mind can be
studied scientifically
- His first study was a study of reaction time,
conducted using systematic methodology
- He coined introspection – the process by which an
individual gains knowledge about their own
emotional states as a result of the examination of
conscious thoughts and feelings e.g. a participant
would be shown a stimulus and asked to
articulate all thoughts and feelings about it
AO3 x 1 - A limitation of introspection is that it is highly
subjective
- While Wundt emphasised the importance of well-
trained researchers, the conclusions made from
the thoughts and feelings expressed by the
participant is based on personal inferences rather
than objective conclusions
- Therefore introspection can often fail to conform
to the requirements of the scientific method
AO3 x 2 - Introspection can force people to express
thoughts and feelings about things they don’t
have opinions on
- If someone is forced to do this, the thoughts and
feelings they express are likely to be highly
artificial, then reducing the validity of
introspection
- However the artificial thoughts arguably still
provide insight into someone’s mind
AO3 x 3 - Introspection is still used in psychology today
- A study was conducted in which a bell was rung at
random points throughout the school day and
students were asked to articulate their thoughts
and feelings about what they were doing –
introspective inferences found students were
happiest when being challenged
- Therefore positive implications for psychology
AO3 x 4 - Introspection was a gateway to scientific
psychological studies
, - While introspection itself has many
methodological flaws, it encouraged other
researchers to begin testing psychological
theories, then aiding the emergence of
psychology as a science
Essay: The behaviourist approach
AO1 - Behaviourism: the belief that behaviour can be
learned through conditioning without the
consideration of thoughts and feelings
- Classical conditioning: learning through
association - when a NS is repeatedly presented
alongside a UCS which elicits a UCR, so the NS
becomes the CS which leads to the now CR
- Pavlov’s dog study
- Operant conditioning: learning through
reinforcement and punishment
- Skinner’s rats study
- Positive reinforcement: a desired behaviour is
rewarded, and therefore encouraged, by a
pleasant stimulus
- Negative reinforcement: a desired behaviour is
rewarded, and therefore encouraged, by the
removal of a negative stimulus
- Generalisation, discrimination, high order
conditioning, extinction, spontaneous recovery
AO3 x 1 - Behaviourism has positive implications for society
- By understanding phobias can be learned via the
two-process model, they can also be treated
according to behaviourism (flooding and
systematic desensitisation)
- Therefore can be used to treat phobias so is
beneficial to several people
- However not suitable for all phobias
AO3 x 2 - Behaviourist values are reliant on animal studies
- Both operant conditioning and classical
conditioning are based on animal studies
(Skinner’s rats and Pavlov’s dogs)
- Reduced validity as animal behaviour cannot be
applied directly to human behaviour due to
biological, social, cognitive differences etc.
- However using animal studies is an effective way
to bypass ethical concerns and support valuable
theories
AO3 x 3 - Utilises scientific methodology
- Most behaviourist theories are heavily reliant on
systematic, objectively formed and testable
hypotheses
