GENDER
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SEX + GENDER
SEX
Refers to the biological states of being either male or female and is determined by different
chromosomes which influence hormonal differences. It is innate and a result of nature
GENDER
Refers to the psychological status of being masculine or feminine and is heavily influenced by social
norms and cultural expectations. It is influenced by nurture
GENDER DYSPHORIA
Some experience dysphoria when their biologically determined sex, based on external sexual
characteristics, does not align with their psychological state of being masculine or feminine
As sex is innate, it cannot be changed
Gender is a social construct, not a biological fact, so is fluid and open to change
Some undergo gender reassignment surgery to bring their sexual identity in line with their
gender identity
GENDER STEREOTYPES
A set of beliefs and preconceived ideas about what is expected or appropriate for males or females in
a given society
ANDROGYNY AND MEASURING ANDROGYNY
AO1
ANDROGYNY: displaying a balance of masculine and female characteristics in one’s personality
Contrary to common misconception, androgyny is not the possession of typically opposite
sex traits – an extremely masculine woman is not androgynous etc.
Sandra Bem (1974) developed a method for measuring androgyny:
BEM SEX ROLE INVENTORY (BSRI)
20 characteristics commonly identified as masculine (competitive, dominant), 20 as feminine
(gentle, shy), and 20 as neutral
Respondents rate themselves 1-7 for each characteristic
High masculine + low feminine = masculine, low masculine + high feminine = feminine
High masculine + high fem = androgynous, low masculine + low feminine = undifferentiated
Bem (1974) found 34% males and 27% females were androgynous, suggesting a sizeable
minority of people are predominantly androgynous
There is a believed positive relationship between wellbeing and androgyny: individuals who are
psychologically both masculine and feminine are, in theory, best equipped to adapt to a range of new
situations
AO3
Strengths of BSRI: created with 50 males and 50 females rating how much traits measured
masculinity/femininity. Piloted on 1000 students who agreed with their result (validity) + a
follow up study on these students returned same result (test-retest reliability)
Counterpoint: low temporal validity – BSRI formed in 1970s and typical gender traits have
since changed
, Burchardt + Serbin: 106F + 84M undergrads, 48F + 48M psychiatric inpatients. Found that
androgynous (and masculine for psychiatric sample) participants showed significantly less
depression/social introversion than feminine males and females. Supports idea of androgyny
aligning with mental health
Counterpoint: masculine types scored similarly well to androgynous types – backed by Taylor
+ Hall (masculinity is a better indicator of wellbeing than androgyny)
Ignorance of issues with androgyny – possessing too much of negative characteristics (too
aggressive, too timid). People may be pressured to reach levels of adequacy in terms of
masculinity and femininity but then suffer from this
Issues with BSRI to measure gender: uses a 1-7 rating scale which, along with the
characteristics themselves, may be interpreted differently by the different participants. This
is a subjective way of gathering data. Also, it has been suggested gender, as a complex
concept, would be better analysed with qualitative methods than quantitative ones
THE ROLE OF CHROMOSOMES AND HORMONES IN
SEX AND GENDER
AO1
CHROMOSOMES
The 23rd pair of chromosomes determine biological sex – XX is female, XY is male
Eggs carry an X chromosome, and sperm an X or Y
Y chromosome carries the gene ‘sex determining region Y’ (SRY), which causes production of
testes – where androgens (male sex hormones) are produced
Chromosomes are gained at conception + affect which hormones are released in the womb
HORMONES
Hormones influence most gender development – acting upon brain development to cause
development of reproductive organs
During puberty, hormonal activity triggers development of secondary sexual characteristics
Testosterone
o Controls development of male sex organs during foetal development
o High testosterone levels are linked to aggression – evolutionary: allows males to
compete for mates, successfully hunt
Oestrogen
o Female hormone determining female sexual characteristics and menstruation
o Oestrogen can cause heightened emotionality/irritability during period, sometimes
referred to as premenstrual syndrome (PMS) in diagnosable disorders
Oxytocin
o ‘love hormone’: reduces stress hormone cortisol, facilitates bonding
o Women produce more than men, especially in/after labour – stimulates mothers
feelings of love for baby and stimulates lactation
o Men producing less aids stereotype of men being less interested in closeness, but
both sexes produce equal amounts in kissing/sexual intercourse
AO3
CHROMOSOMES
Money et al = David Reimer born as a male, penis burnt off, raised as a female with female
hormones. Felt out of place as a female and became suicidal. When told the truth Reimer
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SEX + GENDER
SEX
Refers to the biological states of being either male or female and is determined by different
chromosomes which influence hormonal differences. It is innate and a result of nature
GENDER
Refers to the psychological status of being masculine or feminine and is heavily influenced by social
norms and cultural expectations. It is influenced by nurture
GENDER DYSPHORIA
Some experience dysphoria when their biologically determined sex, based on external sexual
characteristics, does not align with their psychological state of being masculine or feminine
As sex is innate, it cannot be changed
Gender is a social construct, not a biological fact, so is fluid and open to change
Some undergo gender reassignment surgery to bring their sexual identity in line with their
gender identity
GENDER STEREOTYPES
A set of beliefs and preconceived ideas about what is expected or appropriate for males or females in
a given society
ANDROGYNY AND MEASURING ANDROGYNY
AO1
ANDROGYNY: displaying a balance of masculine and female characteristics in one’s personality
Contrary to common misconception, androgyny is not the possession of typically opposite
sex traits – an extremely masculine woman is not androgynous etc.
Sandra Bem (1974) developed a method for measuring androgyny:
BEM SEX ROLE INVENTORY (BSRI)
20 characteristics commonly identified as masculine (competitive, dominant), 20 as feminine
(gentle, shy), and 20 as neutral
Respondents rate themselves 1-7 for each characteristic
High masculine + low feminine = masculine, low masculine + high feminine = feminine
High masculine + high fem = androgynous, low masculine + low feminine = undifferentiated
Bem (1974) found 34% males and 27% females were androgynous, suggesting a sizeable
minority of people are predominantly androgynous
There is a believed positive relationship between wellbeing and androgyny: individuals who are
psychologically both masculine and feminine are, in theory, best equipped to adapt to a range of new
situations
AO3
Strengths of BSRI: created with 50 males and 50 females rating how much traits measured
masculinity/femininity. Piloted on 1000 students who agreed with their result (validity) + a
follow up study on these students returned same result (test-retest reliability)
Counterpoint: low temporal validity – BSRI formed in 1970s and typical gender traits have
since changed
, Burchardt + Serbin: 106F + 84M undergrads, 48F + 48M psychiatric inpatients. Found that
androgynous (and masculine for psychiatric sample) participants showed significantly less
depression/social introversion than feminine males and females. Supports idea of androgyny
aligning with mental health
Counterpoint: masculine types scored similarly well to androgynous types – backed by Taylor
+ Hall (masculinity is a better indicator of wellbeing than androgyny)
Ignorance of issues with androgyny – possessing too much of negative characteristics (too
aggressive, too timid). People may be pressured to reach levels of adequacy in terms of
masculinity and femininity but then suffer from this
Issues with BSRI to measure gender: uses a 1-7 rating scale which, along with the
characteristics themselves, may be interpreted differently by the different participants. This
is a subjective way of gathering data. Also, it has been suggested gender, as a complex
concept, would be better analysed with qualitative methods than quantitative ones
THE ROLE OF CHROMOSOMES AND HORMONES IN
SEX AND GENDER
AO1
CHROMOSOMES
The 23rd pair of chromosomes determine biological sex – XX is female, XY is male
Eggs carry an X chromosome, and sperm an X or Y
Y chromosome carries the gene ‘sex determining region Y’ (SRY), which causes production of
testes – where androgens (male sex hormones) are produced
Chromosomes are gained at conception + affect which hormones are released in the womb
HORMONES
Hormones influence most gender development – acting upon brain development to cause
development of reproductive organs
During puberty, hormonal activity triggers development of secondary sexual characteristics
Testosterone
o Controls development of male sex organs during foetal development
o High testosterone levels are linked to aggression – evolutionary: allows males to
compete for mates, successfully hunt
Oestrogen
o Female hormone determining female sexual characteristics and menstruation
o Oestrogen can cause heightened emotionality/irritability during period, sometimes
referred to as premenstrual syndrome (PMS) in diagnosable disorders
Oxytocin
o ‘love hormone’: reduces stress hormone cortisol, facilitates bonding
o Women produce more than men, especially in/after labour – stimulates mothers
feelings of love for baby and stimulates lactation
o Men producing less aids stereotype of men being less interested in closeness, but
both sexes produce equal amounts in kissing/sexual intercourse
AO3
CHROMOSOMES
Money et al = David Reimer born as a male, penis burnt off, raised as a female with female
hormones. Felt out of place as a female and became suicidal. When told the truth Reimer
