BBH 451 Final Exam (cumulative)
Questions and Correct Answers
CNS vs PNS ✅central nervous system-consists of your brain and spinal cord-the brain
communicates with the muscles in creating a plan to accomplish the movement-spinal
cord acts as a conduct that carries motor information from the brain to the body and
sensory information from the body to the brainperipheral nervous system-made up of all
of the nerves that connect the brain and spinal cord with the rest of the body-sending
motor signals-extend from the spinal cord to the muscle and stimulate it to contract-
somatic nervous system: division of the PNS that is involved in voluntary muscle
control; made up of the nerves that stimulate muscles to elicit movement-autonomic
nervous system: automatic processes-sympathetic: fight or flight-parasympathetic: rest
and digest
Structures of neurons & synapses ✅-neurons
-dendrites
-cell body
-axon
-axon terminal/synaptic boutons
Neurons ✅the most fundamental cellular units of the nervous system
Dendrites ✅the sites on a neuron where information (usually in the form of chemicals
called neurotransmitters) is received
Cell body ✅also known as soma, electrical impulses traveling from the dendrites come
together in the soma and if they are powerful enough they cause the initiation of a new
electrical impulse called an action potential
Axon ✅action potential is transmitted from one end of a neuron to another; axons are
also covered in an insulating material called myelin, which helps to prevent the decaying
of electrical impulses as they travel down the axon
Axon terminal/synaptic boutons ✅when an action potential reaches the end of a
neuron, it will often cause the release of the neurotransmitter to communicate the signal
to other neurons; neurotransmitters are released from axon terminals
Types of Neurotransmitter Removal ✅-diffusion
-enzymatic degradation
-reuptake
,Diffusion ✅a small amount of neurotransmitter will simply diffuse out of the synaptic
cleft after it has been released
Enzymatic degradation ✅occurs primarily at synapses for a neurotransmitter called
acetylcholine; during enzymatic degradation of a neurotransmitter, an enzyme that is
present at the synapse breaks down excess neurotransmitter; the constituent parts of
the neurotransmitter can be sent back into the presynaptic neuron to be used to create
more neurotransmitter
Reuptake ✅removing excess neurotransmitter; involves a specialized protein called a
transporter or transport protein that is present in the synapse; when excess
neurotransmitter is present in the synaptic cleft, this protein draws the neurotransmitter
to it and then transports it back into the presynaptic neuron
What happens when one of the neurotransmitter removal processes is blocked? ✅it
will cause neurotransmitters to continue to build up in the cleft and interacting with
receptors; linger and causing more activity
Definition of Pharmokinetics ✅-a branch of pharmacology that focuses on the kinetics,
or movement, of a drug throughout the body-concerned with what happens to a drug
from the time when it is administered until the time it is excreted from the body-four
major processes: (1) absorption, (2) distribution, (3) metabolism, (4) elimination
ADME: different types of administration and pros/cons ✅(enteral)
Oral:
-most common
-relatively safe
-unreliable and inefficient
Rectal:
-less predictable and efficient
-reserved when unable to take a drug through another route of administration
(parenteral)
Inhalation:
-quickest way to deliver drugs ti the brain
-most common way is smoking
Intravenous:
-rapid way of administrating drug
-very efficient
-potentially dangerous (dose too high, no way of removing from bloodstream)
Mucous membranes:
-most common: intranasal (snorting)
-quick way of delivering to blood supply
-not extremely efficient
-also can be done by chewing or holding substance in mouth or placing under tongue
(sublingual administration)
Transdermal:
, -administering through the skin
-very gradual absorption into the bloodstream
-relatively inefficient, but can be useful when one desires a continuous release of drug
over a prolonged period of time
ADME: what membranes drugs pass through and what characteristics drugs must have
to do so? ✅blood-brain barrier: lipid soluble
Placenta: lipid-soluble
Definition of Pharmacodynamics ✅-the interaction of the drug with the body-deals with
drug effects, and how a drug produces those effects
Half-life ✅the amount of time it takes for ½ of an administered dose of drug to no
longer be bioavailable (due primarily to the body's metabolism of the drug)
Steady state ✅When drugs are being administered therapeutically, often the goal is to
reach a point where the blood concentration of the drug remains consistent—not
fluctuating too much in one or the other direction*you continue dosage until it begins to
level off-never getting too high or low= steady state
Know how to calculate half-life & estimate how long until steady state is achieved ✅5-6
half lives till steady state example: drug has a half life of 5 hours, you would reach
steady state at 25-30 hours
How many half-lives until a drug is considered removed from the system? ✅As a
general rule of thumb, this usually takes about 5-6 half-lives
Why do psychotropic medicines need to be lipophilic? ✅the blood-brain barrier is
reinforced by non-neuronal cells called glial cells; to pass through this layer of glial cells,
substances must be lipid soluble since glial cells form a fatty layer
Down-regulation vs. Up-regulation ✅down regulation:
-may occur if neurotransmitter activity is higher than your brain is used to
-remove GABA receptors
Up regulation:
-may occur if neurotransmitter activity is lower than your brain is used to
-adds more receptors
Agonism ✅When a drug binds to a receptor and activates the receptor, producing a
similar biological response to the neurotransmitter that normally binds to that receptor
Partial agonism ✅While an agonist is a substance that binds to a receptor and
activates it in a manner similar to how the neurotransmitter that typically binds there
activates it, a partial agonist binds to that receptor and causes only a partial effect
Questions and Correct Answers
CNS vs PNS ✅central nervous system-consists of your brain and spinal cord-the brain
communicates with the muscles in creating a plan to accomplish the movement-spinal
cord acts as a conduct that carries motor information from the brain to the body and
sensory information from the body to the brainperipheral nervous system-made up of all
of the nerves that connect the brain and spinal cord with the rest of the body-sending
motor signals-extend from the spinal cord to the muscle and stimulate it to contract-
somatic nervous system: division of the PNS that is involved in voluntary muscle
control; made up of the nerves that stimulate muscles to elicit movement-autonomic
nervous system: automatic processes-sympathetic: fight or flight-parasympathetic: rest
and digest
Structures of neurons & synapses ✅-neurons
-dendrites
-cell body
-axon
-axon terminal/synaptic boutons
Neurons ✅the most fundamental cellular units of the nervous system
Dendrites ✅the sites on a neuron where information (usually in the form of chemicals
called neurotransmitters) is received
Cell body ✅also known as soma, electrical impulses traveling from the dendrites come
together in the soma and if they are powerful enough they cause the initiation of a new
electrical impulse called an action potential
Axon ✅action potential is transmitted from one end of a neuron to another; axons are
also covered in an insulating material called myelin, which helps to prevent the decaying
of electrical impulses as they travel down the axon
Axon terminal/synaptic boutons ✅when an action potential reaches the end of a
neuron, it will often cause the release of the neurotransmitter to communicate the signal
to other neurons; neurotransmitters are released from axon terminals
Types of Neurotransmitter Removal ✅-diffusion
-enzymatic degradation
-reuptake
,Diffusion ✅a small amount of neurotransmitter will simply diffuse out of the synaptic
cleft after it has been released
Enzymatic degradation ✅occurs primarily at synapses for a neurotransmitter called
acetylcholine; during enzymatic degradation of a neurotransmitter, an enzyme that is
present at the synapse breaks down excess neurotransmitter; the constituent parts of
the neurotransmitter can be sent back into the presynaptic neuron to be used to create
more neurotransmitter
Reuptake ✅removing excess neurotransmitter; involves a specialized protein called a
transporter or transport protein that is present in the synapse; when excess
neurotransmitter is present in the synaptic cleft, this protein draws the neurotransmitter
to it and then transports it back into the presynaptic neuron
What happens when one of the neurotransmitter removal processes is blocked? ✅it
will cause neurotransmitters to continue to build up in the cleft and interacting with
receptors; linger and causing more activity
Definition of Pharmokinetics ✅-a branch of pharmacology that focuses on the kinetics,
or movement, of a drug throughout the body-concerned with what happens to a drug
from the time when it is administered until the time it is excreted from the body-four
major processes: (1) absorption, (2) distribution, (3) metabolism, (4) elimination
ADME: different types of administration and pros/cons ✅(enteral)
Oral:
-most common
-relatively safe
-unreliable and inefficient
Rectal:
-less predictable and efficient
-reserved when unable to take a drug through another route of administration
(parenteral)
Inhalation:
-quickest way to deliver drugs ti the brain
-most common way is smoking
Intravenous:
-rapid way of administrating drug
-very efficient
-potentially dangerous (dose too high, no way of removing from bloodstream)
Mucous membranes:
-most common: intranasal (snorting)
-quick way of delivering to blood supply
-not extremely efficient
-also can be done by chewing or holding substance in mouth or placing under tongue
(sublingual administration)
Transdermal:
, -administering through the skin
-very gradual absorption into the bloodstream
-relatively inefficient, but can be useful when one desires a continuous release of drug
over a prolonged period of time
ADME: what membranes drugs pass through and what characteristics drugs must have
to do so? ✅blood-brain barrier: lipid soluble
Placenta: lipid-soluble
Definition of Pharmacodynamics ✅-the interaction of the drug with the body-deals with
drug effects, and how a drug produces those effects
Half-life ✅the amount of time it takes for ½ of an administered dose of drug to no
longer be bioavailable (due primarily to the body's metabolism of the drug)
Steady state ✅When drugs are being administered therapeutically, often the goal is to
reach a point where the blood concentration of the drug remains consistent—not
fluctuating too much in one or the other direction*you continue dosage until it begins to
level off-never getting too high or low= steady state
Know how to calculate half-life & estimate how long until steady state is achieved ✅5-6
half lives till steady state example: drug has a half life of 5 hours, you would reach
steady state at 25-30 hours
How many half-lives until a drug is considered removed from the system? ✅As a
general rule of thumb, this usually takes about 5-6 half-lives
Why do psychotropic medicines need to be lipophilic? ✅the blood-brain barrier is
reinforced by non-neuronal cells called glial cells; to pass through this layer of glial cells,
substances must be lipid soluble since glial cells form a fatty layer
Down-regulation vs. Up-regulation ✅down regulation:
-may occur if neurotransmitter activity is higher than your brain is used to
-remove GABA receptors
Up regulation:
-may occur if neurotransmitter activity is lower than your brain is used to
-adds more receptors
Agonism ✅When a drug binds to a receptor and activates the receptor, producing a
similar biological response to the neurotransmitter that normally binds to that receptor
Partial agonism ✅While an agonist is a substance that binds to a receptor and
activates it in a manner similar to how the neurotransmitter that typically binds there
activates it, a partial agonist binds to that receptor and causes only a partial effect
