Outline what is meant by counterbalancing and a way this could be carried out
Counterbalancing is an attempt to control for order effects in a repeated measures design.
Half the participants experience the condition in one order and the other half in the opposite
order (ABBA)
What are the steps to conducting a sign test?
1. Write down the number of +,- and = based on results comparison
2. Count S, the number of the least frequent sign
3. Find participant number (all except =)
4. Find critical value
5. If S> critical value, no significant difference
what are the features of science?
-Paradigm, Kuhn : universally accepted set of assumptions widely recognised
-Paradigm shift, Kuhn : evidence challenging paradigm cannot be ignored so new set of
assumptions are taken up
-Theory construction: developing explanations through gathering evidence via direct observation
-Hypothesis testing: testing explanations using systematic and objective methods
-Falsifiability, Popper : theories are only scientific if they can be proven wrong
-Replicability, Popper: ability to repeat research and come to same conclusions
-Objectivity: removing bias
-Empirical method, Locke: high quality of control
what are examples of the features of science?
paradigm: Darwin's theory of evolution in biology. Psychology lacks paradigms due to much
internal disagreement
paradigm shift: 1970s cognitive revolution from behaviourism
falsifiability: Freud's psychodynamic theory is too abstract to be falsifiable
replicability: Asch's research
What are the ways of improving validity for questionnaires? -Incorporate a lie scale to
control social desirability bias
-Assure participants their data remains anonymous
What are the ways of improving validity for Experiments? -using a control group to establish
cause and effect
-standardised procedures to reduce participant reactivity
-double blind procedures to reduce investigator effects
what are the ways of improving reliability of questionnaires?
-deselect or rewrite ambiguous questions
-make closed answers
, Outline what is meant by a repeated measures design
all participants experience both conditions of the experiment. The 2 mean scores from both
conditions are compared.
What is content analysis?
The indirect study of behaviour by examining communications
Explain the processes involved in conducting a content analysis.
1. Make into transcript if not already
2. Initially analyse the content using Coding, categorise information into units etc number of
times. Identify themes
3. collect a new set of data to test the validity of themes or categories identified
4. rewatch using codes / themes to identify behaviour
5. Tally for quantitative data and compare
explain the difference between an extraneous variable and a confounding variable
Both are variables other than the IV that affect the DV
Extraneous variables do not vary systematically with the IV while confounding variables do, so
we cannot tell if any changes are due to the IV or the confounding variable
identify features of a normal distribution
- symmetrical spread of frequency data
- bell shape pattern formed
- mean, median and mode are all located at the highest peak and are the same value
what are the features of positively and negatively skewed distributions?
positive skew-> mean is higher than median and mode
negative skew-> mean is lower than median and mode
outline the 2 circumstances in which a researcher might employ the 1% level of
significance
1. Research involving human cost such as when drugs are trialled / socially sensitive
2. Investigation is a one-off and there is no possibility of it being repeated
state one strength and limitation of the mean as a measure of central tendency
- includes all values in the data set and is representative of the data as a whole
-easily distorted by extreme and anomalous data which is not representative overall
Outline what is meant by an independent groups design
Two separate groups of participants experience 2 different conditions of the experiment. The
performance of the 2 groups are then compared.
Counterbalancing is an attempt to control for order effects in a repeated measures design.
Half the participants experience the condition in one order and the other half in the opposite
order (ABBA)
What are the steps to conducting a sign test?
1. Write down the number of +,- and = based on results comparison
2. Count S, the number of the least frequent sign
3. Find participant number (all except =)
4. Find critical value
5. If S> critical value, no significant difference
what are the features of science?
-Paradigm, Kuhn : universally accepted set of assumptions widely recognised
-Paradigm shift, Kuhn : evidence challenging paradigm cannot be ignored so new set of
assumptions are taken up
-Theory construction: developing explanations through gathering evidence via direct observation
-Hypothesis testing: testing explanations using systematic and objective methods
-Falsifiability, Popper : theories are only scientific if they can be proven wrong
-Replicability, Popper: ability to repeat research and come to same conclusions
-Objectivity: removing bias
-Empirical method, Locke: high quality of control
what are examples of the features of science?
paradigm: Darwin's theory of evolution in biology. Psychology lacks paradigms due to much
internal disagreement
paradigm shift: 1970s cognitive revolution from behaviourism
falsifiability: Freud's psychodynamic theory is too abstract to be falsifiable
replicability: Asch's research
What are the ways of improving validity for questionnaires? -Incorporate a lie scale to
control social desirability bias
-Assure participants their data remains anonymous
What are the ways of improving validity for Experiments? -using a control group to establish
cause and effect
-standardised procedures to reduce participant reactivity
-double blind procedures to reduce investigator effects
what are the ways of improving reliability of questionnaires?
-deselect or rewrite ambiguous questions
-make closed answers
, Outline what is meant by a repeated measures design
all participants experience both conditions of the experiment. The 2 mean scores from both
conditions are compared.
What is content analysis?
The indirect study of behaviour by examining communications
Explain the processes involved in conducting a content analysis.
1. Make into transcript if not already
2. Initially analyse the content using Coding, categorise information into units etc number of
times. Identify themes
3. collect a new set of data to test the validity of themes or categories identified
4. rewatch using codes / themes to identify behaviour
5. Tally for quantitative data and compare
explain the difference between an extraneous variable and a confounding variable
Both are variables other than the IV that affect the DV
Extraneous variables do not vary systematically with the IV while confounding variables do, so
we cannot tell if any changes are due to the IV or the confounding variable
identify features of a normal distribution
- symmetrical spread of frequency data
- bell shape pattern formed
- mean, median and mode are all located at the highest peak and are the same value
what are the features of positively and negatively skewed distributions?
positive skew-> mean is higher than median and mode
negative skew-> mean is lower than median and mode
outline the 2 circumstances in which a researcher might employ the 1% level of
significance
1. Research involving human cost such as when drugs are trialled / socially sensitive
2. Investigation is a one-off and there is no possibility of it being repeated
state one strength and limitation of the mean as a measure of central tendency
- includes all values in the data set and is representative of the data as a whole
-easily distorted by extreme and anomalous data which is not representative overall
Outline what is meant by an independent groups design
Two separate groups of participants experience 2 different conditions of the experiment. The
performance of the 2 groups are then compared.
