AP Psychology- Crash Course questions with complete solution

Absolute Threshold - -The minimum intensity at which a stimulus can be detected at least 50% of the time. Accommodation - -The process of adjusting old schemas or developing new ones to incorporate new information According to Freud, dreams contain? - -A storyline or manifest content that consists of symbols. Achievement Motivation - -The drive to succeed, especially in competition with others Achievement Test - -Tests what has been learned Action Potential - -A brief electrical impulse by which information is transmitted along the axon of the neuron. Aerial Perspective - -Distant objects often appear hazy and blurred compared to close objects. Aggression - -Refers to behavior that is intended to cause harm Agonistic Drugs - -Enhance a neurotransmitter's effect Alfred Binet - -Distinguished between the mental age and chronological age in children. His formula cannot be used for adults. Algorithm - -A logical, step-by-step procedure that, if followed correctly, will eventually solve a problem. All-or-Nothing Law - -The principle that either a neuron is sufficiently stimulated and an action potential occurs or a neuron is not sufficiently stimulated and an action potential does not occur. Altruism - -Unselfish regard for the welfare of others Amygdala - -An almond-shaped part of the limbic system linked to the regulation of emotional responses, especially fear. Animistic Thinking - -The belief that inanimate objects have feelings Antagonistic Drugs - -Inhibit a neurotransmitter's effect Anterograde Amnesia - -Causes people to be unable to form new memories. Antianxiety Drugs - -Designed to reduce anxiety and produce relaxation by lowering sympathetic activity of the brain (ex. xanax) Antidepressant Drugs - -Designed to treat depression by inhibiting the reuptake of the neurotransmitter serotonin (ex. Prozac) Antipsychotic Drugs - -Designed to diminish or eliminate hallucinations, delusions, and other symptoms of schizophrenia. Also known as neuroleptics. Antisocial Personality Disorder - -Characterized by a profound disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others. Sufferers lack a conscience and show no remorse for actions that harm others. They often display insight into the weaknesses of others and are surprisingly poised when confronted with their destructive behavior. Anxiety - -A feeling of tension, apprehension, and worry that occurs during a personal crisis or the pressures of everyday life. This is a normal human response to stress. Approach-Approach Conflict - -Occurs when you are forced to choose between two or more desirable alternatives that both lead to positive results Approach-Avoidance Conflict - -Occurs when you are forced to choose an alternative that will have both desirable and undesirable results Aptitude Test - -Tests performance Assimilation - -The process of absorbing new information into an existing schema ex. robins are a bird then calls all others birds Attitude - -A positive, negative, or neutral evaluation of a person, issue, or object. Attraction - -Refers to positive feelings toward another person Authoritarian Style of Parenting - -Parents set rigid rules, enforce strict punishments, and rarely listen to their child's point of view. Authoritative Style of Parenting - -Parents set firm rules, make reasonable demands, and listen to their child's point of view while still insisting on responsible behavior Availability Heuristic - -Judging the likelihood of an event based on readily available personal experiences or news reports.(News of a plane crash causes you to drive instead of fly) Aversion Therapy - -Uses the principles of classical conditioning to create anxiety. Maladaptive behaviors are deliberately paired with an unpleasant stimulus. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict - -Occurs when you are forced to choose between two or more undesirable alternatives that will both lead to negative results Behavioral Perspective - -Emphasizes observable behavior that can be objectively measured. Behavioral Perspective of Abnormal Behavior - -Stresses that abnormal behavior is learned and focuses on how behavior was reinforced and rewarded. Binocular Depth Cues - -Require the use of both eyes to process distance or depth cues. Biological Influences of Aggression - -Evolutionary psychologists believe that humans are instinctively aggressive Biological Perspective - -Emphasizes genetics, the roles of various parts of the brain, and the structure and function of individual nerve cells. Biological Perspective of Abnormal Behavior - -Argues that many psychological disorders are caused by hormonal or neurotransmitter imbalances, differences in brain structure, and inherited predispositions. Bipolar Disorder - -Characterized by periods of both depression and mania (hyperactivity). Sufferers frequently exhibit racing thoughts, a shortened attention span, and an inflated sense of importance. Blind-Spot - -The point at the back of the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eye, leaving no visual receptor cells. Our brains, however, fill in the missing visual information so we do not notice the blind spot. Case Study - -An in-depth examination of a single research participant. Catharisis Hypothesis - -States that you should vent your frustration and anger, however, expressing anger and frustration may lead to more anger and frustration Central Route to Persuasion - -When people focus on factual information, logical arguments, and a thoughtful analysis of pertinent details Centration - -The tendency to only focus on one aspect of a situation Cerebral Cortex - -A thin surface layer on the cerebral hemispheres that regulates most complex behavior, including sensations, motor control, and higher mental process such as decision making. Cerebral Hemispheres - -A nearly symmetrical left and right halves of the cerebral cortex. The left hemisphere specializes in verbal and analytical functions. The right hemisphere focuses on nonverbal abilities such as art and music and visual recognition tasks. Characteristics of Schizophrenia - --Delusional beliefs -Hallucinations -Disorganized speech and thought -Emotional and behavioral disturbances Charles Spearman - --Observed that an individual's scores on various tests of intellectual performance correlated with one another. -Proposed that intelligence is a single underlying factor, which he termed general intelligence (G Factor) - Concluded that the G Factor could be expressed as a single number Chunking - -Improves memory by creating small groups of similar information. Circadian Rhythm - -Biological processes that systematically vary over a period of about 24 hours. Classical Conditioning - -Based upon the pioneering work of Ivan Pavlov. The learning process that occurs when a previously neutral stimulus (a ringing bell) is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food) to elicit a conditioned response (salvation). Cochlea - -The coiled, snail-shaped structure in the inner ear containing receptors for hearing Cognitive Dissonance - -The state of psychological tension, anxiety, and, discomfort that occurs when an individual's attitude and behavior are inconsistent Cognitive Perspective - -Influences by the computer revolution, the cognitive perspective compares the mind to a computer that encodes, processes, and stores information. Cognitive psychologists emphasize thinking, perceiving, and information processing. Cognitive Perspective of Abnormal Behavior - -Focuses on faulty, illogical, and negative ways of thinking. Believe that maladaptive thoughts lead to misperceptions and misinterpretations of events and social interactions. Color Blindness - -A genetic disorder the prevents an individual from distinguishing between certain colors. Companionate Love - -Based upon strong feelings of admiration, respect, and commitment and is strengthened by mutual sharing of decisions and the self-disclosure of intimate details about personal feelings and experiences Concept - -A mental category formed to group objects, events, or situations that share similar features and characteristics. Concious - -Thoughts or motives that a person is currently aware of or is remembering. Conditioned Response - -A conditioned response is a learned response elicited by the conditioned stimulus. Conditioned Stimulus - -The conditioned stimulus was originally the neutral stimulus. When systematically paired with the unconditioned stimulus (food), the neutral stimulus (the ringing bell) becomes a conditioned stimulus as it gains the power to cause a response. Conduction Deafness - -Caused when the tiny bones in the middle ear are damaged and cannot transmit sound waves to the inner ear. Cones - -The short, thick visual receptor cells, concentrated near the center of the retina, responsible for color vision and fine detail. Confirmation Bias - -A preference for information that confirms preexisting positions or beliefs, while ignoring or discovering contradictory evidence. Conflict - -Occurs when a person is forced to choose between two or more opposing goals or desires. (Approach-Approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach-avoidance) Conformity - -The tendency for people to adopt the behavior, attitudes, and beliefs of other members of a group Confounding Variable - -Variables that have an unwanted influence on the outcome of an experiment. Also known as extraneous variables. Conservation - -Understanding that certain physical characteristics remain unchanged, even when their outward appearance changes. Content Validity - -When test scores can be used to predict another relevant measure. Continuous Reinforcement - -A reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced. Control Group - -Group that is exposed to all experimental conditions, except the independent variable. Conventional Morality - --Adolescents and young adults -Make moral judgments based on compliance with society's rules and values Conversion Disorder - -A type of somatoform disorder marked by paralysis, blindness, deafness, or other loss of sensation, but with no other discernible physical cause. Corpus Callosum - -The bundle of nerve fibers connecting the brain's left and right hemispheres. Correlation Coefficient - -A numerical value from +1.00 to -1.00 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables. Correlation Research - -The researcher observes measures of two or more naturally occurring variables to find the relationship between them. The researcher does not directly manipulate the variables. Indicates the possibility of causation but does not prove causation. Critical Period - -A specific time of great sensitivity to age-related learning that shapes the capacity for future cognitive developments Cross-Sectional Method - -Compares individuals of various ages at one point in time Crystallized Intelligence - -Refers to the storage of knowledge and skills gained through experience and education. Remains stable or increases slightly with age. David Wechsler - -Developed intelligence tests for preschool and school-age children. These tests are now the most widely used measures of intelligence. Declarative (explicit) Memory - -- Episodic Memory-- stores memories of personal experiences -Semantic Memory-- stores memories of facts and general knowledge Defense Mechanisms - -In Freduian theory, the ego's protective method of reducing anxiety and distorting reality. Deindividuation - -Refers to the reduction of self-awareness and personal responsibility that can occur when a person is part of a group whose members feel anonymous Denial - -Protecting oneself from anxiety-producing information by refusing to acknowledge it Dependent Variable - -The factor that is measured by the experimenter. It is affected by, and thus depends on, the independent variable. Depressants - -Decrease bodily processes, reducing reaction times, and causing a feeling of well being (Ex: Alcohol) Depth Perception - -The ability to perceive three-dimensional space and accurately judge distance. Diffusion of Responsibility - -The idea that someone else will help in emergency situations Discrimination - -Refers to a differential treatment, usually negative, directed at members of a group Displacement - -Redirecting anger and other unacceptable impulses toward a less-threatening person or object Display rules - -Cultural norms that influence how and when emotional responses are displayed Dissociation - -The splitting of consciousness into two or more simultaneous streams of mental activity. Dissociative Amnesia - -Characterized by a partial or total inability to recall past experiences and important information. This is typically a response to traumatic events and extremely stressful situations, such as marital problems and military combat. Dissociative Disorders - -Involve a splitting apart of significant aspects of a person's awareness, memory, or identity. Dissociative Fugue - -Characterized by suddenly and inexplicably leaving home and taking on a completely new identity with no memory of a former life. Dissociative Indentity Disorder (DID) - -Characterized by the presence of two or more distinct personality systems in the same individual. Each personality has its own name, unique memories, behaviors, and self-image. Divergent Thinking - -A type of thinking in which problem solvers devise a number of possible alternative approaches. A major element in creativity. Door-in-the-Face Phenomenon - -The persuasion strategy of getting a person to decline a large request as a set-up to agree to a smaller request. Double-Blind Study - -A procedure in which neither the researcher nor the participant knows which group received the experimental treatment. Designed to reduce experimenter bias. Drive Reduction Theory - -Based on the biological concept of homeostasis, the body seeks to maintain a stable internal state. A state of tension, known as a "drive", is created by the body if any needs are unmet. (ex. A person will drink water as a result of a drive to satisfy thirst) Echoic Memory - -Records auditory memory. Egocentrism - -The inability to consider another person's point of view Elaborative Rehearsal - -The process by which new information is actively reviewed and related to information already stored in long-term memory. Electroconvulsive Therapy - -Used to treat serious cases of depression because it works faster than antidepressants (often used on suicidal patients). Two electrodes are placed on the outside of the patient's head and a moderate electrical current is passed through the brain Encoding - -Acquiring information. Encoding Failure - -Occurs when poorly encoded information is passed from short-term memory to the long term memory. Endorphins - -Chemical substances in the Nervous System that reduce the perception of pain. Environment - -A study of identical twins raised separately supports the hypothesis that environment plays an important role in determining IQ. The correlation between the IQ scores of identical twins raised separately is lower than those of identical twins raised together. Ethocentrism - -The tendency to consider other cultures, customs, and values as inferior to one's own Evolutionary Perspective - -Emphasizes the role played by natural selection and adaptation in the evolution of behavior and mental processes. Experimental Group - -Group that is exposed to the independent variable. Experimental Method - -A carefully controlled scientific procedure involving the manipulated of variables to determine caused and effect. This method enables researchers to determine cause-and-effect relationships. Explanatory Style - --Stable or Unstable: Will it remain the same or will it change? -Internal or External: Did I play a key role in that experience or was it due to outside force? -Global or Specific: Will it be replicated or was it a one-time thing? External Locus of Control - -Individuals believe that most situations are governed by chance and lucky breaks Extinction - -The gradual weakening of a conditional behavior when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. Extrinsic Motivation - -Based upon external rewards or threats of punishment Factor Analysis - -Statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items Family and Marital Therapies - -Strive to identify and change maladaptive family interactions Feature Detectors - -Specialized neurons that respond only to certain sensory information. (ex. In the visual cortex they respond to things such as angles, lines, curves, and movements) Figure-Ground Relationship - -The human tendency to distinguish between figure and ground, and is the most fundamental Gestalt principle of organization. The figure is the main element of a scene that clearly stands out. The ground is the less distinct background of a scene. Five-Factor Model - -Trait theory of personality that includes openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Fixed Interval Schedule - -Reinforcement occurs after a predetermined time has elapsed. Fixed Ratio Schedule - -Reinforcement occurs after a predetermined set of responses. Fluid Intelligence - -Includes memory, the speed of information processing, and reasoning abilities, such as forming new concepts, seeing underlying relationships, and quickly solving unfamiliar problems. Declines with age. Flynn Effect - -Overtime the average intelligence increases Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon - -The persuasion strategy of getting a person to agree to a modest first request as a set-up for a later, much larger, request. Free Association - -Therapy in which the therapist lets the patient talk freely Frequency Theory - -The basilar membrane vibrates at the same frequency as the sound waves. Freud believed that latent content provides? - -The dream's real unconscious meaning. Freud's Psychoanalysis - -Based on the premise of unconscious conflicts and repressed memories are the underlying causes of abnormal behavior Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis - -States that frustration can ignite anger that may lead to aggression Functional Fixedness - -The tendency to think of an object as functioning only in its usual or customary way. (You don't think to use your shoe to hammer in a nail) Functionalism - -Emphasized studying the purpose, or function, of behavior and mental experiences. Fundamental Attribution Error - -The widespread tendency to overemphasize dispositional factors and to underestimate situational factors when making attributions about the cause of another person's behavior. Gate-Control Theory - -Theory that explains how the nervous system blocks or allows pain signals to pass to the brain. General Adaptation Syndrome - -Hans Selye's three-stage (Alarm, resistance, exhaustion) reaction to chronic stress Generalizability - -Results can be applied to a larger population. Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) - -Characterized by persistent, uncontrollable, and ongoing apprehension about a wide range of life situations. Can lead to chronic fatigue and irritability. Gestalt - -Focus on perceptual wholes. Group Polarization - -The tendency for a group's predominant opinion to become stronger or more extreme after an issue is discussed Group Therapy - -A number of people meet and work toward therapeutic goals. Sessions are often based on the principle of Humanistic Therapy Groupthink - -The tendency for a cohesive decision-making group to ignore or dismiss reasonable alternatives Hallucinogens - -Produces sensory or perceptual distortions called hallucinations Heredity - -The passing of genetic factors from parent to offspring Heuristic - -A general rule of thumb; shortcut that is used to reduce the number of possible solutions. Hierarchy of Needs - -Maslow's theory that lower motives (physiological and safety needs) must be met before advancing to higher needs (Such as esteem and self-actualization) Hippocampus - -A curved forebrain structure that is part of the limbic system and is involved in learning and forming new memories. How do clinical psychologists and psychiatrists use the MMPI? - -They use it to diagnose psychological disorders How do you determine whether a test is scientifically biased? - -Compare the difference in scores between the two groups. If no difference exists, the test is not biased. How long is a typical sleep cycle? - -90 minutes Howard Gardner - --Points out that different cultures recognize and value different abilities -He believes that there are a number of "multiple intelligences" that are recognized and defined within the context of each culture. He gave a total of 8 intelligences. Ex- Musical Intelligence Humanist Perspective of Abnormal Behavior - -Looks to a person's feelings, self-esteem, and self-concept for the causes of mental behavior. Believe that behavior is the result of choices we make in struggling to find meaning in life. Humanistic Perspective - -Emphasizes the importance of self-esteem, free will, and choice in human behavior. therapeutic relationship w patient Hypnosis - -A trancelike state of heightened suggestibility, deep relaxation, and intense focus. This can be used to treat pain. Hypochondriasis - -A type of somatoform disorder involving an exaggerated concern about health and illness. Hypothalamus - -Small brain structure beneath the thalamus that helps govern the release of hormones by the pituitary gland and regulates drives such as hunger and thirst. Hypothesis - -Must be testable, verifiable, and refutable. Iconic Memory - -Records visual memory. Illusory Correlation - -Perception of a correlation where none exists. In what sequence does learned helplessness occur? - -Uncontrollable bad events --> Perceived lack of control --> Generalized helpless behavior In which stage of sleep do sleep spindles occur? - -Stage 2 In-Groups - -A group a person identifies with and feels that he or she belongs to Independent Variable - -The factor that is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter. Insanity Label - -The mentally ill are more likely to be victims of violence rather than perpetrators Insomnia - -Persistent problems in falling asleep, staying asleep, and awakening too early. Intelligence - -The global capacity the think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment. Intermittent Reinforcement - -The rewarding of some, but not all, correct responses. Internal Locus of Control - -Individuals accept personal responsibility for their life experiences Intrinsic Motivation - -Based upon personal enjoyment of a task or activity Irreversibility - -The child's inability to mentally reverse a sequence of events or logical operations James-Lange Theory - -States that our subjective experience of emotion follows our experience of physiological changes. Arousal immediately precedes emotion. Just-World Phenomenon - -Most people have a need to believe that the world is just and fair. As a result, they generally believe that people get what they deserve Lateral Hypothalamus - -Causes a person to eat when stimulated. Learned Helplessness - -The feeling of "no matter how hard I try, I will fail". Linear Perspective - -Parallel lines appear to converge toward a vanishing point as they recede into the distance. Locus of Control - -Individuals who accept personal responsibility for their life experiences have an internal locus of control. Individuals who believe that most situations are governed by chance have an external locus of control. Longitudinal Method - -Measures a single individual or group of individuals over an extended period of time. Maintenance Rehearsal - -The process of repeating information to keep in short-term memory. Major Depression - -Characterized by a lasting and continuous depressed mood. Sufferers often feel deeply discouraged and lethargic. Often leads to suicidal feelings. Matching Hypothesis - -Two members of a romantic pair are most likely to be judged by others as similar in physical attractiveness Mean - -A measure of central tendency that provides the average score (any change in the highest score in a distibution must result in a change in the mean) Median - -A measure of central tendency that divides a frequency distribution exactly in half. Mental Giftedness - -This label is applied to individuals who score significantly above average in general intellectual functioning. Mental Images - -A mental picture of a previously stored sensory experience. Mental Retardation - -- This label is applied to individuals who score significantly below average in general intellectual functioning - Can be caused by genetic abnormalities such as Down Syndrome Mental Set - -The tendency to continue using belief systems and problem-solving strategies that worked in the past. Mere Exposure Effect - -Repeated exposure to people or products increases the likelihood that we will be attracted to them Method of Loci - -The process of remembering several pieces of information by mentally associating an image of each with a different location. (Assigning things to different rooms of your house) Mode - -A measure of central tendency that identifies the most frequently occurring score in a distribution. Monocular Depth Cues - -Require the use of only one eye to process distance or depth cues. Mood Disorders - -Serious, persistent disturbances in a person's emotions. Can cause psychologocal discomfort and impair a person's ability to function. Mood-Stabilizing Drugs - -Designed to treat the combination of manic episodes and depression characteristic of bipolar disorder (ex. lithium) Morphemes - -The smallest units of meaning in a language. Motion Parallax - -As you move, you use the speed of passing objects to estimate the distance of the objects. More distant objects appear to be moving slower or not at all and closer objects appear to be moving quicker. Myelin Sheath - -A white, fatty covering wrapped around the axons of some neurons, which increases the rate at which the nerve impulses travel along the axon. Narcissistic Personality Disorder - -Characterized by a grandiose sense of self-importance, fantasies of unlimited success, need for excessive admiration, and a willingness to exploit others to achieve personal goals Naturalistic Observation - -Researchers unobtrusively observes the behavior of subjects as it occurs in a real social setting. Negative Punishment - -Taking away a stimulus that weakens a response and makes it less likely to occur. Negative Reinforcement - -A situation in which a behavior or response is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus. This increases the likelihood of a behavior by enabling a person to either escape an existing aversive stimulus or avoid an aversive stimulus before it occurs. Negatively Skewed Distribution - -Contains a preponderance of scores on the high-end of the scale. The mean will be lower than the median. Nerve Deafness - -Caused by damage to the cochlea, hair cells, or auditory nerve. Neuron - -A highly specialized nerve cell responsible for receiving and transmitting information in electrical and chemical forms. These are the fundamental building block of the Nervous System. Neurotransmitter - -Chemical transmitter manufactured by a neuron. Neutral Stimulus - -A stimulus (ringing bell) that produces no conditioned response prior to learning. Noam Chomsky argues that children have? - -An innate capacity to learn and produce speech. Normal Distribution - -A bell-shaped curve, describing the spread of a characteristic throughout a population. Half of the scores fall at or above the mean and half the scores fall at or below the mean. NREM sleep is divided into how many stages? - -4 Obedience - -The performance of an action in response to the direct orders of an authority or person of higher status Object Permanence - -Infants understanding that objects or people continue to exist even when they cannot be directly seen, heard, or touched. Observational Learning - -Occurs by watching others and then imitating or modeling the observed behavior. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) - -Characterized by persistent, repetitive, and unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and behaviors (compulsions). Can cause anxiety and stress. Operant Conditioning - -A learning process by which behavior is shaped and maintained by consequences (rewards or punishments) that follow a response. Operational Definition - -A precise description of how the variable in a study will be manipulated and measured Opiates - -Numbs the senses and relieves pain Out-Group - -A group with which a person does not identify and does not feel as if he or she belongs Overjustification - -Occurs when extrinsic motivation displaces a person's intrinsic motivation. P-Value - -The probability of concluding that a difference exists when in fact the difference does not exist. A statistically significant difference is a difference not likely due to chance. Panic Disorder - -Characterized by sudden episodes of extreme anxiety. Is accompanied by a pounding heart, rapid breathing, sudden dizziness, and a feeling of lightheadedness. Parasympathetic Nervous System - -Branch of the automatic Nervous System that calms the body, maintains bodily functions and conserves energy. Peripheral Route to Persuasion - -When people focus on emotional appeals and incidental cues Permissive Style of Parenting - -Parents set few rules, make minimal demands, and allow their children to reach their own conclusion Personal Control - -Correlates people's feelings and experiment by raising and lowering sense of control Personality - -An individual's unique and relatively stable pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving Personality Disorders - -Sufferers are inflexible and maladaptive across a broad range of situations. This disorder usually becomes evident during adolescence or early adulthood Phobias (Severe) - -Characterized by a strong, irrational fear of specific objects or situations that are normally considered harmless. Phonemes - -The smallest distinctive sound used in a language. Pitch - -Relative to the highness or lowness of a sound. Place Theory - -Different frequencies excite different hair cells at different locations along the basilar membrane. Positive Punishment - -Adding an aversive stimulus that weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur. Positive Reinforcement - -A situation in which a behavior or response is followed by the addition of a reinforcing stimulus. The stimulus increases the probability that the response will occur again. Positively Skewed Distribution - -Contains a preponderance of scores on the low-end of the scale. The mean will be higher than the median. Postconventional Morality - --Adults -Develop personal standards for what is right and wrong Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) - -Characterized by intense feelings of anxiety, horror, and helplessness after experiencing a traumatic event, such as a violent crime, natural disaster, or military combat. Preconcious - -Consists of thoughts, motives, and memories than can be voluntarily brought to mind. Preconventional Morality - --Young children -Make moral judgments based upon avoiding punishment -Egocentric moral reasoning is limited to how their choice will affect themselves Predictive Validity - -Predicts the behavior Prejudice - -A learned judgment directed toward people solely because of their membership in a specific social group (can be positive or negative) Premack Principle - -States that the opportunity to engage in a preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity. Primary Reinforcers - -A reinforcer that is naturally reinforcing for a given species. (ex. Food and Water) Proactive Interference - -Occurs when old information interferes with recalling new information. (Thomas and Mercer getting in the way of remembering their sisters name) Procedural (implicit) Memory - -Includes motor skills, habits, and other memories of how things are done. Projection - -Transferring one's own unacceptable thoughts, motives, or personal qualities to others Psychoactive Drugs - -Chemicals that change conscious awareness, mood, and/or perception Psychoanalysis - -Emphasized the role of unconscious conflicts in determining behavior and personality. Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Perspective - -Emphasizes the role of unconscious conflicts in determining behavior and personality. Psychoanalytical Perspective of Abnormal Behavior - -Views mental disorders as the production of intrapsychic conflicts among the id, ego, and superego. In order to protect itself, the ego represses psychic conflicts into the unconscious. These conflicts result from unresolved traumatic experiences that took place in childhood. Psychopharmacology - -The study of how drugs affect mental processes and behavior Psychosocial Stages - -Eriks Erikson's theory that individuals pass through eight developmental stages, each involving a crisis that must be successfully resolved. Punishment - -A process in which a behavior is followed by an aversive consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated. Random Assignment - -Procedure by which participants are assigned to experimental and control groups by chance. Rational Emotive Therapy - -Developed by Albert Ellis as a four-step plan to help his clients recognize and change their self-defeating thoughts. Rationalization - -Justifying one's own actions by using socially acceptable explanations Reaction Formation - -Thinking or behaving in a way that is the opposite of your own unacceptable thoughts and feelings Recall - -The use of a general cue to retrieve a memory. Reciprocal Determinism - -Factors interact with the environment which influences our behavior Reciprocity - -The tendency to do unto others what the do to you Recognition - -The use of a specific cue to retrieve a memory. Regression - -Retreating from a threatening situation by reverting to a pattern of behavior characteristics of an earlier stage of development Reinforcement - -Strengthens a response and makes it more likely to occur Relative Size - -If two or more objects are assumed to be similar in size, the object that appears larger is perceived as being closer. Reliability - -A test must produce consistent results when it is administered on repeated occasions. REM Sleep - -Type of sleep during which rapid eye movements and dreams usually occur. This is often referred to as paradoxical sleep. Representative Heuristic - -Judging the likelihood of an event based on how well it matches a typical example or prototype. (We would likely say that a beautiful blonde is more apt to be a model, not an elementary teacher) Repression - -Freud's first and most basic defense mechanism. Repression prevents unacceptable impulses from coming into conscious awareness. Resistance - -Patients either unconsciously or consciously avoid talking about a particular subject Retinal Disparity - -The separation of the eyes causes different images to fall on each retina. When the two retinal images are very different we interpret the object to be close. When the images are very similar we interpret the object to be farther away. Retrieval - -Recovering information. Retrieval Failure - -Occurs when information is stored in long-term memory is available, but momentarily inaccessible. Retroactive Interference - -Occurs when new information interferes with recalling old information (Joe gets in the way of remembering his brother's name) Retrograde Amnesia - -Causes people to be unable to remember some or all of their past. Rods - -The long, thin visual receptor cells in the retina that are highly sensative to light but not to color. Romantic Love - -Based upon intense feelings of attraction to another person, typically fades after 6-30 months Rorschach Test - -Consists of 10 cards with symmetrical inkblot images of which the examiner carefully records the subject's responses, paying close attention to descriptions of animate and inanimate objects and human and animal figures. Saliency Bias - -Situational factors are less salient or noticeable than dispositional factors. As a result, people focus on visible personality traits rather than the less visible social context. Schema - -A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information Schizophrenia - --Typically begins in late adolescence or early adulthood -Affects approximately one percent of the U.S. population -Approximately half of all people admitted to mental institutions are diagnosed with schizophrenia Script - -A type of schema that involves the typical sequence of behavior expected at an everyday event. Secondary Reinforcers - -A reinforcer that gains its effectiveness by a learned association with primary reinforcers. (ex. Money) Selective Attention - -The cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one or more aspects of the environment while filtering out or ignoring other information. Self-concept - -The set of perceptions and beliefs that individuals have about their own nature and behavior Self-Efficacy - -The feelings of self-confidence or self-doubt that people bring to a specific situation Self-Esteem - -Feeling of self worth Self-Serving Bias - -Blame others for bad things but take responsibility for good things Sensory Adaptation - -The decline in sensitivity to a constant stimulus. Serial-Position Effect - -Information at the beginning and end of a list is remembered better than material in the middle. Set-Point Theory - -States that humans and other animals have a natural or optimal body fat level. The body defends this set-point weight by regulating the feelings of hunger and body metabolism. Shaping - -The technique of strengthening behavior by reinforcing successive approximations of a behavior until the entire correct routine is displayed. Shcater-Singer Two-Factor Theory - -States that physical arousal and cognitive labeling of that arousal produce our subjective experience of emotion. Signal Detection Theory - -States that sensation depends on the characteristics of the stimulus, the background stimulation, and the detector. Selective attention enables you to filter out and focus on only selected sensory messages. Sleep Apnea - -Is common in overweight men over the age of 50 Social Facilitation - -The tendency for an individual's performance to improve when simple or well-rehearsed tasks are performed in the presence of others Social Influence Theory - -States that there is no such thing as hypnosis. Instead, people are enacting the socially constructed role of the hypnotic subject. Social Inhibition - -The tendency for an individual's performance to decline when complex or poorly-learned tasks are performed in the presence of others Social Loafing - -The phenomenon of people making less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group rather than when they work alone Social-Responsibility Norm - -The tendency to help those that need our help Somatoform Disorders - -Characterized by physical complaints or conditions which are caused by psychological factors. Somnambulism - -Episode of walking or performing other actions during stage 3 or stage 4 of NREM sleep. Sound Localization - -Both ears pinpoint the direction from which a sound was produced by which ear the sound waves reached first. Spotlight Effect - -Overestimation of what others with say about you Standard Deviation - -A measure of variability that indicates the average differences between the scores and their mean Standardization - -The test has uniformly presented to a large, representative sample of people Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test - -IQ=Mental Age(MA)/Chronological Age(CA)x100 Stereotype - -A mental image of members of a group that exaggerates or oversimplifies their characteristics (can be positive or negative) Stimulants - -Produce awareness, excitement, elevated mood, and general responsiveness (Ex: Caffeine) Stimulus Discrimination - -The ability to distinguish between two similar stimuli. Stimulus Generalization - -Occurs when the stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus also elicit the conditioned response. Storage - -Retaining information. Stress - -An emotional response to demands that are perceived as threatening or exceeding a person's resources or ability to cope. Structuralism - -An unreliable method of investigation because different subjects often reported very different introspective findings about the same stimulus. Survey - -Uses questionnaires or interviews to assess the behavior, attitudes, and opinions of a large number of people. Symbolic Thought - -The ability to use words, images, and symbols to represent the world Sympathetic Nervous System - -Arouses body responses such as increased heart and respiration rate. Sympathetic Nervous System - -Branch of the automatic Nervous System that produces rapid physical arousal in response to perceived emergencies or threats. Systematic Desensitization - -Developed by Joseph Wolpe, uses the principles of classical conditioning to reduce anxiety. Phobic responses are reduced by first exposing a client to a very low level of the anxiety-producing stimulus. Once no anxiety is present, the client is gradually exposed to stronger and stronger versions of the anxiety-producing stimulus. This process is continued until the client no longer feels any anxiety toward the stimulus. Tardive Dyskinesia - -Uncontrollable movements developed by long-term use of antipsychotic drugs` Temperament - -An individual's characteristic manner of behavior The Bystander Effect - -A social psychological phenomenon in which individuals are less likely to assist in an emergency situation when other people are present The ego - -According to Freud, the ego resides in the conscious and preconscious levels of awareness. The ego is rational and practical. It operates on a reality principle, seeking to mediate between the demands of the id and the superego. The ID - -According to Freud, the id is completely unconscious. It consists of innate sexual and aggressive instincts and drives. It is impulsive, irrational and immature. It operates on a pleasure principle, seeking to achieve immediate gratification and avoid discomfort. The Law of Closure - -States that there is a tendency to fill in the gaps of an incomplete image. The Law of Proximity - -States that there is a tendency to perceive objects that are physically closer together as a single unit. The Law of Similarity - -States that there is a tendency to perceive objects of a similar size, shape, or color as a unit or figure. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) - -Contains over 500 statements to which subjects respond to each statement by answering "True", "False", or "Cannot say." The Misinformation Effect - -A memory distortion phenomenon in which a person's existing memories can be altered if a person is exposed to misleading information. (ex. bumped, smashed, hit) The Opponent Process Theory - -The ganglion cells process colors in opposing pairs of: red--green, black--white, and blue--yellow. **Explains the phenomena of afterimages** The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy - -Occurs when a person's expectations of another person leads that person to behave in the expected way (can be positive or negative) The superego - -According to Freud, the superego is partly conscious. It consists of internalized parental and social standards. The superego operates on a morality principle, seeking to enforce ethical conduct. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) - -Uses a series of proactive, but ambiguous, pictures. The subjects are asked to tell a dramatic story that includes what led up to the event, what is happening at the moment depicted, what the characters are feeling, and what the outcome of the story is. The Trichromatic Theory - -Begins with the fact that there are three primary colors--red, green, and blue. Any other color can be created by combining the light waves of these three colors. Token Economy - -Based on operant conditioning, in which individuals are rewarded with tokens that act as secondary reinforcers. The tokens can be redeemed for rewards and privileges. Tolerance - -Bodily adjustment to higher and higher levels of a drug, which leads to decreased sensitivity. Trait - -A relatively stable personal characteristic that can be used to describe how an individual consistently behaves Transduction - -The process by which sensory receptors convert the incoming physical energy stimuli, such as light waves, into neural impulses that the brain can understand. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence - --Analytical Intelligence: Logical reasoning skills that include analysis, evaluation, and comparison -Creative Intelligence: Imaginative skills that include developing new inventions and seeing new relationships -Practical Intelligence: Practical "street smart" skills that include coping with people and events - All are learned Tyranny of Choice - -When choosing from many options you're more likely to be unsatisfied vs. having fewer choices Unconcious - -Consists of thoughts, feelings, and memories blocked from conscious awareness. Unconditioned Response - -An unlearned response (salvation) that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus (food). Unconditioned Stimulus - -A natural stimulus (food) that reflectively elicits a response (salvation) without the need for prior learning. Validity - -The ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure. Variable Interval Schedule - -Reinforcement occurs unpredictably since the time interval varies. Variable Ratio Schedule - -Reinforcement is unpredictable because ratio varies. Ventromedial Hypothalamus - -Causes a person to stop eating when stimulated. What are emotional factors that contribute to prejudice? - --Frustration- often directed toward an innocent target known as a scapegoat -Groups perceived as threatening important cultural values What are factors that promote attraction? - --Physical attractiveness -Proximity -Similarity What are the advantages of an Experiment? - -- Proves causation - Distinguish between real and placebo effects - Controls bias - Is able to be replicated What are the chemical senses? - -Smell and taste (olfaction and gustation) What are the disadvantages of an Experiment? - -- Artificial laboratory conditions - Can be compromised by confounding variables - Biases - Ethical concerns What are the disadvantages of correlation studies? - -- Cannot be used to prove causation - Cannot be used to establish the direction of casual influence - Do not allow researchers to actively manipulate the variables - Is difficult to identify the impact of confounding variables What are the eight psychosocial stages defined by Erikson? - --Trust vs Mistrust -Autonomy vs Doubt -Initiative vs Guilt -Industry vs Inferiority -Identity vs Role confusion -Intimacy vs Isolation -Generativity vs Self-Absorption -Integrity vs Despair What are the factors that promote comformity? - --The size of the majority -The unanimity of the majority -The characteristics of the majority -The difficulty of the task What are the five axes in the DSM-IV-TR used to describe abnormal behaviors? - --Axis One: Clinical Disorders, such as depression and anxiety disorder -Axis Two: Personality Disorders, such as antisocial behavior and mental retardation -Axis Three: General Medical Conditions, such as diabetes -Axis Four: Psychosocial and Environmental problems, such as the death of a family member or loss of a job -Axis Five: Global assessment of a person's overall level of functioning on a scale of one (serious attempt at suicide) to one hundred (happy, productive, many interests) What are the five major psychoanalytic techniques? - --Encourage free associations -Analyzing Dreams -Analyzing Resistance -Analyzing Transference -Offering Interpretation What are the four basic standards of abnormal behavior? - --Abnormal behavior is unusual -Abnormal behavior is maladaptive -Abnormal behavior is disturbing to others -Abnormal behavior is distressful What are the four major taste sensations? - -Sweet, sour, salty, and bitter, (umami) What are the four steps in Rational Emotive Therapy? - --Identifying Activating Events- affects a client's mental processes and behavior -Identifying Belief Systems- the client's irrational beliefs and negative self-talk -Examining Emotional Consequences- irrational beliefs lead to self-defeating behaviors, anxiety disorders, and depression -Disputing Erroneous Beliefs- the therapist vigorously disputes the client's faulty logic and self-defeating beliefs What are the general characteristics of anxiety disorders? - -- Is irrational because it is provoked by nonexistent or exaggerated threats -Is uncontrollable -Is disruptive because it impairs relationships and everyday activities What are the limitations of hypnosis? - --Cannot be done against their will -Cannot make people violate their moral values -Cannot bestow new talents What are the most common disorders? - --Phobia -Alcohol Dependency -Mood Disorder What are the stages of grief? - --Denial -Anger -Bargaining -Depression -Acceptance What are the stages of Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development? - --Sensorimotor - 0-2 years, lacks object permanence -Preoperational- 2-7 years, egocentrism and animistic thinking -Concrete Operational- 7-11 years, conservation -Formal Operational- 11-adulthood, abstract and hypothetical thinking What are the three approaches to therapy? - --Insight Therapy- includes psychoanalytic, cognitive, and humanistic therapies -Behavior Therapy- focuses on the problem behavior itself -Biomedical Therapy- uses drugs and electroconvulsive therapy What are the three bones of the middle ear? - -Hammer, anvil, and stirrup. What are the uses of hypnosis? - --Used to reduce stress and anxiety - Used to treat chronic pain -Used to manage pain during medical procedures -Used in an effort to lose weight and stop smoking What do critics argue about the MMPI? - -Critics argue that respondents can give false answers to hide their true feelings. In addition, many people are not good judges of their own behavior. What does a negative correlation show? - -Two variables move or vary in opposite directions What does a positive correlation show? - -Two variables move or vary in the same direction What does a zero correlation show? - -There is no relationship between the two variables What factors contribute to aggressive tendencies? - --Social rejection (ostracism) -Minimal parental control (especially by the father) -Parental models of aggression What factors reduce aggression? - --Superordinate goals -Conciliatory acts -Communication What is and why do surgeons preform split brain surgery? - -Split-brain surgery is the cutting of the corpus callosum to prevent the spread of epileptic seizures by disrupting communication between the right and left hemispheres. What is Client-Centered Therapy? - -The therapist creates a comfortable, nonjudgmental environment by demonstrating empathy and unconditional positive regard toward his or her patients. This encourages clients to freely find solutions to their problems. --Does not challenge the client's beliefs. Instead, the therapist actively listens and then paraphrases what the client has told them-- What is Mary Carver Jones most famous for? - -Her study using counterconditioning to modify a child's behavior by associating his favorite snack with the object he was afraid of. What is the basis for Behavioral Therapy? - -Based on the principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Therapists seek to modify specific problem behaviors. What is the basis for Biomedical Therapy? - -Based on the premise that the symptoms of many psychological disorders involve biological factors, such as chemical imbalances, disturbed nervous system functions, and abnormal brain chemistry. What is the basis for Cognitive Therapy? - -Rests on the assumption that faulty thoughts, such as negative self-talk and irrational beliefs, cause psychological problems. What is the basis for Humanist Therapy? - --Humanist psychologists contend that people are innately good and motivated to achieve their highest potential. Focuses on the present rather than past. What is the continuity approach? - -The belief that development is a continuous process as new abilities, skills, and knowledge are added at a gradual pace What is The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR)? - -A classification system developed by American Psychiatric Association that is used to describe abnormal behaviors. What is the study in which deindividuation caused it to be called off? - -The Stanford Prison Experiment What is the TAT test intended to reveal? - -The subject's unconscious motivation and personality characteristics. What is the vestibular sense? - -Sense of balance and equilibrium. What is visual acuity? - -Clarity What makes up the autonomic nervous system? - -The sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. What were the important underlying results from Rosenhan's pseudopatient experiment? - --A diagnostic label can result in subsequent distortions of the meaning of an individual's behavior -Preconception can stigmatize- the label of "Schizophrenia" quickly became the central characteristic that governed how the staff treated each pseudopatient Where does transduction take place in the ear? - -Hair cells located in the basilar membrane. Where does transduction take place in the eye? - -The retina Where is balance maintained? - -The semicircular canals in the ear that are filled with fluid that shifts in response to motion. Withdrawal - -The painful experience associated with stopping the use of addictive drugs Yerkes-Dodson Law - -An optimal level of psychological arousal helps performances. When arousal is too low, our minds wander and we become bored. When arousal is too high, we become too anxious. People are thus motivated to seek a moderate level of stimulation.