Muntinga, D.G., Moorman, M. & Smit, E.G. (2011). Introducing COBRAs: exploring
motivations for brand-related social media use. International Journal of Advertising,
30, 13–46
Introduction
Web 2.0 technologies → more opportunities to share about brands. Consumers are becoming
increasingly influential with respect to the brands they are interacting about → COBRAs (Consumers’
Online Brand-Related Activities): a behavioural construct that provides a unifying framework to
think about consumer activity pertaining to brand-related content on social media platforms.
COBRAs consequences are studies, but it’s antecedents, consumers motivation to engage with
brand-related content, is also important.
A COBRA typology
Various user types are often distinguished, from engaging to non-engaging. But consumers often
take many roles. Better for this is the usage type, because they assume people to engage in more
than a single behaviour. So, we took the activeness of social media use into account and developed a
continuum from high to low brand-related activity: consuming → contributing → creating.
• Consuming: minimum level of online brand-related activeness. Participating without actively
contributing to or creating content: watching videos, playing games, download widgets.
• Contributing: middle level of online brand-related activeness. Both user-to-content and user-
to-user interactions about brands: converse on a brand’s fan page and comment on content.
• Creating: ultimate level of online brand-related activeness. Actively producing/publishing the
brand-related content that others consume and contribute to. Write, post, produce, upload.
Uses, gratifications and motivations
We took a user-centric functionalist perspective on social media: uses and gratifications (U&G):
examines media effects from the viewpoint of the individual user, how and why people use media.
U&G assumes that people are active and selective in their media use. While antecedents of
behaviour are referred to as ‘gratifications sought’, consequences of behaviour are referred to as
‘gratifications obtained’. Widely recognised as the key driving forces behind behaviour, motivations
here are understood as gratifications sought.
U&G is particularly appropriate for examining people’s use of new types of media and content. Many
motivation classifications have been developed for many media, genres and programmes. Four-
category classification of motivations for general (and social) media use: entertainment, integration
and social interaction, personal identity, information motivation. And two added: remuneration and
empowerment.
• Entertainment: escaping or being diverted from problems or routine; emotional release or
relief; relaxation; enjoyment; passing time.
• Integration and social interaction: related to other people. Sense of belonging; connecting
with friends, family and society; seeking support/emotional support; and substituting real-
life companionship. ‘Affiliation with like-minded others.’
• Personal identity: related to the self: gaining insight into one’s self; reinforcing personal
values; and identifying with and gaining recognition from peers. Impression management
and identity expression, Need for self-fulfilment; self-enhancement.
• Information: searching for information: what relevant events are taking place in someone’s
direct daily environment and in society; seeking advice and opinions; and risk reduction;
information exchange, voyeurism and surveillance.
motivations for brand-related social media use. International Journal of Advertising,
30, 13–46
Introduction
Web 2.0 technologies → more opportunities to share about brands. Consumers are becoming
increasingly influential with respect to the brands they are interacting about → COBRAs (Consumers’
Online Brand-Related Activities): a behavioural construct that provides a unifying framework to
think about consumer activity pertaining to brand-related content on social media platforms.
COBRAs consequences are studies, but it’s antecedents, consumers motivation to engage with
brand-related content, is also important.
A COBRA typology
Various user types are often distinguished, from engaging to non-engaging. But consumers often
take many roles. Better for this is the usage type, because they assume people to engage in more
than a single behaviour. So, we took the activeness of social media use into account and developed a
continuum from high to low brand-related activity: consuming → contributing → creating.
• Consuming: minimum level of online brand-related activeness. Participating without actively
contributing to or creating content: watching videos, playing games, download widgets.
• Contributing: middle level of online brand-related activeness. Both user-to-content and user-
to-user interactions about brands: converse on a brand’s fan page and comment on content.
• Creating: ultimate level of online brand-related activeness. Actively producing/publishing the
brand-related content that others consume and contribute to. Write, post, produce, upload.
Uses, gratifications and motivations
We took a user-centric functionalist perspective on social media: uses and gratifications (U&G):
examines media effects from the viewpoint of the individual user, how and why people use media.
U&G assumes that people are active and selective in their media use. While antecedents of
behaviour are referred to as ‘gratifications sought’, consequences of behaviour are referred to as
‘gratifications obtained’. Widely recognised as the key driving forces behind behaviour, motivations
here are understood as gratifications sought.
U&G is particularly appropriate for examining people’s use of new types of media and content. Many
motivation classifications have been developed for many media, genres and programmes. Four-
category classification of motivations for general (and social) media use: entertainment, integration
and social interaction, personal identity, information motivation. And two added: remuneration and
empowerment.
• Entertainment: escaping or being diverted from problems or routine; emotional release or
relief; relaxation; enjoyment; passing time.
• Integration and social interaction: related to other people. Sense of belonging; connecting
with friends, family and society; seeking support/emotional support; and substituting real-
life companionship. ‘Affiliation with like-minded others.’
• Personal identity: related to the self: gaining insight into one’s self; reinforcing personal
values; and identifying with and gaining recognition from peers. Impression management
and identity expression, Need for self-fulfilment; self-enhancement.
• Information: searching for information: what relevant events are taking place in someone’s
direct daily environment and in society; seeking advice and opinions; and risk reduction;
information exchange, voyeurism and surveillance.
