PYC4803 – Practice Questions 2018
Chapter 2 – Social Cognition
It is through social cognition that we make judgments about others, reach decisions about them, and
make predictions about their future behaviour. Social cognition is closely related to attribution and
interpersonal perception (BB: Chapter 3) for both relate to the processes underlying our
understanding of the social world. However, they differ in that social cognition focuses on how we
notice, store, integrate, remember and recall social information whereas attribution theories focus on
how we come to understand why others (and we) behave in certain ways.
Research on social cognition has increased dramatically in the last few years. We cannot possibly
acquaint you with all the fascinating areas being investigated. What we can do is introduce you to a
few topics that are of central importance to social cognition.
Q2.1 - Definitions
Social cognition The way we think about the social world and attempt to p.55
understand it, ourselves and our place in it.
Schemas Mental (cognitive) frameworks (developed through p.65
experience), that allow us to organise (& make sense) of
large amounts of information in an efficient manner.
E.g. When standing in line at home affairs…we know
what to expect and are prepared for how events will
unfold
Heuristics Simple rules for making complex (difficult) decisions or p.58
drawing inferences (conclusions) both quickly and
effortlessly (to avoid information overload).
Affect Our current feelings and moods p.82
Priming A situation that occurs when stimuli or (recent) events p.67
increase the availability in memory or consciousness of
specific types of information held in memory.
Perseverance effect The tendency for beliefs and schemas to remain p.67
unchanged even in the face of contradictory information.
Information overload Times when our ability to process information is p.57
exceeded. This can also be caused by high levels of
stress or other elements.
Representative heuristic A way of making judgements about something or p.58
someone based on the extent to which it/they resemble
other stimuli/categories/groups.
Availability heuristic A way of making judgements based on how easily p.59
specific kinds of information can be recalled.
Automatic processing When we have extensive experience with a task or type p.70
of information, we reach a stage where we can perform
the task/process the information, in a seemingly
effortless, automatic and nonconscious manner.
Negative bias When we give ore psychological weight to bad
experiences than good ones.
Optimistic bias Our predisposition to expect things to turn out well, even p.74
overlooking risks.
Overconfidence barrier The tendency to have more confidence in the accuracy p.74
of our own judgements than is reasonable.
Planning fallacy The tendency to make optimistic predictions concerning p.76
how long a given task will take for completion (think we
can get more done in a given time period).
Counterfactual thinking The tendency to imagine other outcomes than the ones p.78
that actually occurred (what might have been).
Thought suppression Trying to ignore or control thoughts that we find
threatening or distressing.
,Magical thinking Believing that one event happens as a result of another p.79
without a plausible link of causation.
Mood congruence effects We are more likely to store or remember positive p.82
information when in a positive mood and negative
information when in a negative mood.
Mood dependent memory What we remember in a given mood may be p.82
determined, in part, by what we learned when previously
in that mood.
, Chapter 3 – Social Perception
Through attribution we attempt to understand the causes behind others’ behaviour. Because we
cannot “see” their covert feelings, reasons and intentions, we have to infer them from what we can
“see” -- their overt behaviour.
We make our attributions about ourselves in much the same way. Often our own emotions, attitudes,
traits, and abilities are unclear and ambiguous to us. (Why did I overreact?) In self-perception, as in
our perception of others, we search for plausible causes of our own behaviour. If we are aware of
strong external factors pushing us, we are likely to make situational attributions. But when there are
no clear external forces we are likely to make dispositional attributions. This distinction between
situational and dispositional causes of behaviour is fundamental to all attribution theories.
Many discussions of casual attribution seem to suggest that attribution is a highly rational, logical and
objective process. This is not always the case -- often our attributions are subject to biases that lead
us to incorrect conclusions regarding the reasons behind others’ (and our own) behaviour.
Attributions cannot tell us why a person behaved in a certain way. That is not their function. Rather
their function is to describe the psychological operations that underlie such attributions.
Q3.1 Discuss the various signs that may help us detect if someone is lying to us
Everyone has been deceptive at least once in their lives. Be it perhaps trying to avoid hurting people’s
feelings or getting yourself out of trouble with your parents or friends. According to research people
tell at least one lie a day and some form of deception is used 20% of people’s social interactions. We
tend to perceive others as truthful that’s why we don’t easily notice their lies, or we don’t search for
clues of deception. Another reason is our desire to be polite. We also differ in how we define lying.
Even our moods can influence our ability to recognize deception. Sad people recognize deception
better compared to happy people because they tend to focus/pay more attention to the content of the
message.
The following signs are instrumental in helping us to detect if someone is lying. Firstly, non-verbal
cues called micro-expressions (fleeting facial expressions that last only a tenth of a second – it
appears on the face quickly after an emotional provoking event and are difficult to suppress).
Secondly, interchannel discrepancies for example discrepancies between facial expression and body
language. People who are lying often find it difficult to control all communication channels at once.
Thirdly, exaggerated facial expressions. An attempt to engage in deception can be shown by people
smiling frequently or showing an exaggerated level of interest in what we say.
In addition to non-verbal cues we can also use these to determine if someone is lying: pitching their
voice higher, taking longer to respond to questions or being slower in describing events. They tend to
start sentences, stop and start again. In other words, the linguistic elements of speech.
Through careful attention to non-verbal cues and various other aspects of how people speak we may
be able to tell if they are lying or not. In addition to this cognitive effort is also beneficial, but this
process of detecting lies remains difficult, even for experts.
Q3.2 Write a short essay on the following topic: Are men really ‘clueless’ when it comes to
nonverbal cues?
There are significant differences in the way men and women use, and respond to, nonverbal cues.
Men are biologically “trained” not to notice the details of life. They are evolved to be hunters and
hunting demands a single focus: Find, kill, bring animal back to tribe. He ignores distractions in order
to accomplish his goal.
Women, on the other hand, evolved to keep watch over the home front and gather fruits, nuts and
roots. In order to do so, they had to expand their vision to notice everything. This is still true in the
modern world, where boys are trained, in most circumstances, to honour their masculinity. They are
not taught emotional intelligence whereby they can use their feelings to gather important data in every
situation. They are taught to trust their intellect, physicality and wits. The lines have, however become
blurry, with women coming more and more into their power, and gender roles are left behind.
Chapter 2 – Social Cognition
It is through social cognition that we make judgments about others, reach decisions about them, and
make predictions about their future behaviour. Social cognition is closely related to attribution and
interpersonal perception (BB: Chapter 3) for both relate to the processes underlying our
understanding of the social world. However, they differ in that social cognition focuses on how we
notice, store, integrate, remember and recall social information whereas attribution theories focus on
how we come to understand why others (and we) behave in certain ways.
Research on social cognition has increased dramatically in the last few years. We cannot possibly
acquaint you with all the fascinating areas being investigated. What we can do is introduce you to a
few topics that are of central importance to social cognition.
Q2.1 - Definitions
Social cognition The way we think about the social world and attempt to p.55
understand it, ourselves and our place in it.
Schemas Mental (cognitive) frameworks (developed through p.65
experience), that allow us to organise (& make sense) of
large amounts of information in an efficient manner.
E.g. When standing in line at home affairs…we know
what to expect and are prepared for how events will
unfold
Heuristics Simple rules for making complex (difficult) decisions or p.58
drawing inferences (conclusions) both quickly and
effortlessly (to avoid information overload).
Affect Our current feelings and moods p.82
Priming A situation that occurs when stimuli or (recent) events p.67
increase the availability in memory or consciousness of
specific types of information held in memory.
Perseverance effect The tendency for beliefs and schemas to remain p.67
unchanged even in the face of contradictory information.
Information overload Times when our ability to process information is p.57
exceeded. This can also be caused by high levels of
stress or other elements.
Representative heuristic A way of making judgements about something or p.58
someone based on the extent to which it/they resemble
other stimuli/categories/groups.
Availability heuristic A way of making judgements based on how easily p.59
specific kinds of information can be recalled.
Automatic processing When we have extensive experience with a task or type p.70
of information, we reach a stage where we can perform
the task/process the information, in a seemingly
effortless, automatic and nonconscious manner.
Negative bias When we give ore psychological weight to bad
experiences than good ones.
Optimistic bias Our predisposition to expect things to turn out well, even p.74
overlooking risks.
Overconfidence barrier The tendency to have more confidence in the accuracy p.74
of our own judgements than is reasonable.
Planning fallacy The tendency to make optimistic predictions concerning p.76
how long a given task will take for completion (think we
can get more done in a given time period).
Counterfactual thinking The tendency to imagine other outcomes than the ones p.78
that actually occurred (what might have been).
Thought suppression Trying to ignore or control thoughts that we find
threatening or distressing.
,Magical thinking Believing that one event happens as a result of another p.79
without a plausible link of causation.
Mood congruence effects We are more likely to store or remember positive p.82
information when in a positive mood and negative
information when in a negative mood.
Mood dependent memory What we remember in a given mood may be p.82
determined, in part, by what we learned when previously
in that mood.
, Chapter 3 – Social Perception
Through attribution we attempt to understand the causes behind others’ behaviour. Because we
cannot “see” their covert feelings, reasons and intentions, we have to infer them from what we can
“see” -- their overt behaviour.
We make our attributions about ourselves in much the same way. Often our own emotions, attitudes,
traits, and abilities are unclear and ambiguous to us. (Why did I overreact?) In self-perception, as in
our perception of others, we search for plausible causes of our own behaviour. If we are aware of
strong external factors pushing us, we are likely to make situational attributions. But when there are
no clear external forces we are likely to make dispositional attributions. This distinction between
situational and dispositional causes of behaviour is fundamental to all attribution theories.
Many discussions of casual attribution seem to suggest that attribution is a highly rational, logical and
objective process. This is not always the case -- often our attributions are subject to biases that lead
us to incorrect conclusions regarding the reasons behind others’ (and our own) behaviour.
Attributions cannot tell us why a person behaved in a certain way. That is not their function. Rather
their function is to describe the psychological operations that underlie such attributions.
Q3.1 Discuss the various signs that may help us detect if someone is lying to us
Everyone has been deceptive at least once in their lives. Be it perhaps trying to avoid hurting people’s
feelings or getting yourself out of trouble with your parents or friends. According to research people
tell at least one lie a day and some form of deception is used 20% of people’s social interactions. We
tend to perceive others as truthful that’s why we don’t easily notice their lies, or we don’t search for
clues of deception. Another reason is our desire to be polite. We also differ in how we define lying.
Even our moods can influence our ability to recognize deception. Sad people recognize deception
better compared to happy people because they tend to focus/pay more attention to the content of the
message.
The following signs are instrumental in helping us to detect if someone is lying. Firstly, non-verbal
cues called micro-expressions (fleeting facial expressions that last only a tenth of a second – it
appears on the face quickly after an emotional provoking event and are difficult to suppress).
Secondly, interchannel discrepancies for example discrepancies between facial expression and body
language. People who are lying often find it difficult to control all communication channels at once.
Thirdly, exaggerated facial expressions. An attempt to engage in deception can be shown by people
smiling frequently or showing an exaggerated level of interest in what we say.
In addition to non-verbal cues we can also use these to determine if someone is lying: pitching their
voice higher, taking longer to respond to questions or being slower in describing events. They tend to
start sentences, stop and start again. In other words, the linguistic elements of speech.
Through careful attention to non-verbal cues and various other aspects of how people speak we may
be able to tell if they are lying or not. In addition to this cognitive effort is also beneficial, but this
process of detecting lies remains difficult, even for experts.
Q3.2 Write a short essay on the following topic: Are men really ‘clueless’ when it comes to
nonverbal cues?
There are significant differences in the way men and women use, and respond to, nonverbal cues.
Men are biologically “trained” not to notice the details of life. They are evolved to be hunters and
hunting demands a single focus: Find, kill, bring animal back to tribe. He ignores distractions in order
to accomplish his goal.
Women, on the other hand, evolved to keep watch over the home front and gather fruits, nuts and
roots. In order to do so, they had to expand their vision to notice everything. This is still true in the
modern world, where boys are trained, in most circumstances, to honour their masculinity. They are
not taught emotional intelligence whereby they can use their feelings to gather important data in every
situation. They are taught to trust their intellect, physicality and wits. The lines have, however become
blurry, with women coming more and more into their power, and gender roles are left behind.
