Problem 1 – The Structure of Self-Regulation & Nudging
Goal-Striving and Self-Regulation Processes (Diefendorff & Lord, 2008)
A review that focuses primarily on self-regulation as it pertains to work contexts.
Definition of Self-Regulation
Self-regulation pertains to the capacity to guide ones activities over time and across
changing circumstances.
Regulatie impliceert de modulatie van gedachten, affectie, gedrag of aandacht via
overwogen of automatisch gebruik van specifieke mechanismen en ondersteunende
metavaardigheden.
It involves conscious, deliberate processes as well as unconscious, automatic
processes.
Self-regulation reflects not only using one’s willpower to reach goals, but also flexibly
using a variety of means to attain goals. The key to effective self-regulation is the
ability to act in multiple goal environments while responding to internal conditions in a
flexible and context-sensitive manner.
A Taxonomy of Self-Regulation Theories
Theories of self-regulation can be described as focusing to a greater or lesser extent on the
structure, phases, or content of self-regulation.
Structural theories describe self-regulatory constructs and their interrelationship
over time, without addressing the contents of what is regulated (general principles
that apply to all domains of goal-directed behavior).
Phase theories focus on the sequence of activities involved in goal pursuit, starting
with goal selection and ending at goal attainment or goal revision (breaking self-
regulation into discrete steps and describe the tasks to be accomplished and the
cognitive, emotional, and behavioral resources individuals bring to bear at each step).
Content theories describe the types of activities that individuals pursue and the ways
in which the nature of one’s goals affect self-regulation. They emphasize how the
types of activities pursued by individuals impact self-regulatory processes and
outcomes.
Structural Theories
Including: Control Theory and Social Cognitive Theory
Control theory provides a dynamic view of behavior bases on the reciprocal
interdependence of a person interacting with the environment over time.
At the core of CT is the negative feedback loop, which consists of four components:
o Input function: senses information from the environment and brings it into the
loop (= perception, takes form of performance feedback).
o Comparator: matches the input value with a goal or standard (when the two
don’t match, the output function is activated).
o Output function: when activated, brings subsequent input into line with the
reference value.
o The change in output is behavior for the sake of creating a perception that no
discrepancy is present.
It assumes a hierarchical structuring of goals with short-term, concrete goals lower in
the hierarchy, and long-term, abstract goals higher in the hierarchy.
1
, o Lower-level goals can be thought of as strategies for attaining higher-level
goals.
Social cognitive theory views self-regulation as a cyclical process with feedback about goal
progress being used by individuals to make adjustments to current actions so as to reduce
discrepancies between behavior and goals (just like CT). SCT also assumes a hierarchical
structuring of goals.
Difference between CT and SCT:
SCT emphasizes discrepancy production (setting new goals that are higher than
one’s last performance), whereas CT emphasizes discrepancy reduction (striving to
reach one’s goals).
o Authors argue that this is only a semantical difference as they involve identical
processes.
CT is, according to Bandura and Locke, indifferent to whether discrepancies are
eliminated by lowering one’s goals or by working hard to reach one’s goals.
o According authors this is not the case, because lowering one’s goals to meet
a standard would create discrepancies for more important goals higher in the
goal hierarchy and, as a result, is not an adaptive long-term response for
individuals. Thus, it is not generally an effective self-regulatory response.
However, there are exceptions to this general statement. Maintaining
goals that cannot be met may become a chronic source of
dissatisfaction and eventual depression. Yet, higher-level goals may
also need to be readjusted.
Bandura and Locke: the more interesting question may be why individuals create
discrepancies (set difficult goals) that require hard work and increase stress, rather
than why individuals try to achieve goals they have set (reduce discrepancies).
o SCT explains discrepancy production as being a result of individuals trying to
motivate themselves. However, this position is not all that different from CT’s
explanation (namely, individuals may raise their goals as part of their efforts to
reduce discrepancies for goals higher in the goal hierarchy, which reflect
important goals that the person is motivated to attain).
Vancouver: SCT represents a system-level conceptualization of self-regulation and
CT represents a sub-system-level conceptualization.
Phase Theories
Describing the motivation process as consisting of two phases: goal setting and goal striving.
2
, Goal setting involves weighing the reasons for pursuing activities to determine what
goal will emerge or become dominant (process of selecting a goal).
Goal striving involves performing behaviors in the service of goal attainment, such
as initiating action, putting forth effort, trying different task strategies, and persisting in
the face of obstacles or setbacks (behaviors directed toward an existing goal).
Other researchers have adopted this basic distinction, adding more steps to further indicate
the process.
Gollwitzer (goal establishment, planning, goal striving, and goal revision) argued that each of
the four phases has a distinct task to be accomplished and that the phases are separated by
distinct boundary events. The tasks of each phase lead to particular mind-sets that prepare a
person to act in a way that maximally benefits performance.
Different associated mindsets in the model:
Deliberative: individuals have a general openness to information and attempt to
accurately evaluate the feasibility and desirability of competing goals.
Implemental: cognitive tuning toward action-related information and an incomplete
and optimistic analysis of the desirability and feasibility of the chosen goal.
Actional: individuals become immersed in performing the task and experience a
closemindedness to information unrelated to action.
Evaluative: individuals once again examine the feasibility and desirability of the goal.
Phase theories do not describe how regulatory constructs interact over time or what
individuals are pursuing.
Content Theories
These theories often appeal to basic needs or personality constructs as determinants of
chronic goals or how goals are framed to reflect different content.
Including: self-determination theory, regulatory focus theory, and goal orientation
theory.
Self-Determination Theory focuses on the role of basic human needs in driving behavior
and distinguishes among intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation.
Further types of extrinsic motivation: external motivation, introjected motivation,
identified motivation, and integrated motivation.
The level of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation for a behavior depends on the extent
to which the behavior satisfies one or more of three fundamental psychological
needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
Regulatory Focus Theory argues that goals can be framed as promotion focused (seek to
minimize differences between actual and ideal selves) or prevention focused (seek to
minimize differences between their actual and ought selves).
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Goal-Striving and Self-Regulation Processes (Diefendorff & Lord, 2008)
A review that focuses primarily on self-regulation as it pertains to work contexts.
Definition of Self-Regulation
Self-regulation pertains to the capacity to guide ones activities over time and across
changing circumstances.
Regulatie impliceert de modulatie van gedachten, affectie, gedrag of aandacht via
overwogen of automatisch gebruik van specifieke mechanismen en ondersteunende
metavaardigheden.
It involves conscious, deliberate processes as well as unconscious, automatic
processes.
Self-regulation reflects not only using one’s willpower to reach goals, but also flexibly
using a variety of means to attain goals. The key to effective self-regulation is the
ability to act in multiple goal environments while responding to internal conditions in a
flexible and context-sensitive manner.
A Taxonomy of Self-Regulation Theories
Theories of self-regulation can be described as focusing to a greater or lesser extent on the
structure, phases, or content of self-regulation.
Structural theories describe self-regulatory constructs and their interrelationship
over time, without addressing the contents of what is regulated (general principles
that apply to all domains of goal-directed behavior).
Phase theories focus on the sequence of activities involved in goal pursuit, starting
with goal selection and ending at goal attainment or goal revision (breaking self-
regulation into discrete steps and describe the tasks to be accomplished and the
cognitive, emotional, and behavioral resources individuals bring to bear at each step).
Content theories describe the types of activities that individuals pursue and the ways
in which the nature of one’s goals affect self-regulation. They emphasize how the
types of activities pursued by individuals impact self-regulatory processes and
outcomes.
Structural Theories
Including: Control Theory and Social Cognitive Theory
Control theory provides a dynamic view of behavior bases on the reciprocal
interdependence of a person interacting with the environment over time.
At the core of CT is the negative feedback loop, which consists of four components:
o Input function: senses information from the environment and brings it into the
loop (= perception, takes form of performance feedback).
o Comparator: matches the input value with a goal or standard (when the two
don’t match, the output function is activated).
o Output function: when activated, brings subsequent input into line with the
reference value.
o The change in output is behavior for the sake of creating a perception that no
discrepancy is present.
It assumes a hierarchical structuring of goals with short-term, concrete goals lower in
the hierarchy, and long-term, abstract goals higher in the hierarchy.
1
, o Lower-level goals can be thought of as strategies for attaining higher-level
goals.
Social cognitive theory views self-regulation as a cyclical process with feedback about goal
progress being used by individuals to make adjustments to current actions so as to reduce
discrepancies between behavior and goals (just like CT). SCT also assumes a hierarchical
structuring of goals.
Difference between CT and SCT:
SCT emphasizes discrepancy production (setting new goals that are higher than
one’s last performance), whereas CT emphasizes discrepancy reduction (striving to
reach one’s goals).
o Authors argue that this is only a semantical difference as they involve identical
processes.
CT is, according to Bandura and Locke, indifferent to whether discrepancies are
eliminated by lowering one’s goals or by working hard to reach one’s goals.
o According authors this is not the case, because lowering one’s goals to meet
a standard would create discrepancies for more important goals higher in the
goal hierarchy and, as a result, is not an adaptive long-term response for
individuals. Thus, it is not generally an effective self-regulatory response.
However, there are exceptions to this general statement. Maintaining
goals that cannot be met may become a chronic source of
dissatisfaction and eventual depression. Yet, higher-level goals may
also need to be readjusted.
Bandura and Locke: the more interesting question may be why individuals create
discrepancies (set difficult goals) that require hard work and increase stress, rather
than why individuals try to achieve goals they have set (reduce discrepancies).
o SCT explains discrepancy production as being a result of individuals trying to
motivate themselves. However, this position is not all that different from CT’s
explanation (namely, individuals may raise their goals as part of their efforts to
reduce discrepancies for goals higher in the goal hierarchy, which reflect
important goals that the person is motivated to attain).
Vancouver: SCT represents a system-level conceptualization of self-regulation and
CT represents a sub-system-level conceptualization.
Phase Theories
Describing the motivation process as consisting of two phases: goal setting and goal striving.
2
, Goal setting involves weighing the reasons for pursuing activities to determine what
goal will emerge or become dominant (process of selecting a goal).
Goal striving involves performing behaviors in the service of goal attainment, such
as initiating action, putting forth effort, trying different task strategies, and persisting in
the face of obstacles or setbacks (behaviors directed toward an existing goal).
Other researchers have adopted this basic distinction, adding more steps to further indicate
the process.
Gollwitzer (goal establishment, planning, goal striving, and goal revision) argued that each of
the four phases has a distinct task to be accomplished and that the phases are separated by
distinct boundary events. The tasks of each phase lead to particular mind-sets that prepare a
person to act in a way that maximally benefits performance.
Different associated mindsets in the model:
Deliberative: individuals have a general openness to information and attempt to
accurately evaluate the feasibility and desirability of competing goals.
Implemental: cognitive tuning toward action-related information and an incomplete
and optimistic analysis of the desirability and feasibility of the chosen goal.
Actional: individuals become immersed in performing the task and experience a
closemindedness to information unrelated to action.
Evaluative: individuals once again examine the feasibility and desirability of the goal.
Phase theories do not describe how regulatory constructs interact over time or what
individuals are pursuing.
Content Theories
These theories often appeal to basic needs or personality constructs as determinants of
chronic goals or how goals are framed to reflect different content.
Including: self-determination theory, regulatory focus theory, and goal orientation
theory.
Self-Determination Theory focuses on the role of basic human needs in driving behavior
and distinguishes among intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation.
Further types of extrinsic motivation: external motivation, introjected motivation,
identified motivation, and integrated motivation.
The level of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation for a behavior depends on the extent
to which the behavior satisfies one or more of three fundamental psychological
needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
Regulatory Focus Theory argues that goals can be framed as promotion focused (seek to
minimize differences between actual and ideal selves) or prevention focused (seek to
minimize differences between their actual and ought selves).
3
