PHIL 111 Practice Exam Question And Correct Answers.

heuristic - correct answer mental shortcut WOB - correct answer Web of beliefs Semantics - correct answer the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning Conjunction Fallacy - correct answer when people think that two events are more likely to occur together than either individual event Occam's Razor - correct answer The philosophy that the simplest explanation is usually the correct one reductio ad absurdum - correct answer reduce to absurdity philosphy - correct answer love of wisdom Metacognition - correct answer awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes. Critical Thinking - correct answer *the systematic evaluation or formulation of beliefs or statements by rational standards* - seeing all sides of an issue - being open to new evidence against one's own ideas - seeking evidence for claims - use of deduction or induction from known facts (rational tools) Fact vs. Opinion - correct answer Facts must have truth value - established methods for determining the truth of the matter (criteria) - if two people disagree, one must be mistaken Claim - correct answer that which has truth value Argument - correct answer a collection of statements to support a claim; a series of statements designed to support or establish the truth of an idea - turns an opinion into a conclusion - doesn't require a contrary perspective or another human being - distinguish from a contradiction Words that Indicate Premises - correct answer - because - since - as - seeing that - in view of the fact that - judging from - that being the case - due to the fact - for the reason that - for Words that Indicate Conclusions - correct answer - so - therefore - thus - hence - consequently - it follows that - implies that - accordingly - which shows that Explanations - correct answer a series of statements designed to shed light on some event that is already accepted as a matter of fact - shows *why* something is the case as opposed to *that* something is the case Conditional Statements - correct answer if-then statements Metaphors we live By - correct answer - argument is war - time is money - *conduit metaphor* - *structural metaphor* - *orientational metaphor* Conduit Metaphor - correct answer - ideas (of meanings) are *objects* - linguistic expressions are *containers* - communication is *sending* *The speaker puts ideas (objects) into words (containers) and sends them (along a conduit) to a bearer who takes the idea/objects out of the word/containers* Metaphor - correct answer understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another Structural Metaphors - correct answer cases where one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another Orientational Metaphors - correct answer primarily relating to spatial organization (up/down, in/out, front/back, on/off, near/far, deep/shallow, and central/peripheral). Ostensive Definition - correct answer specifies the meaning of a term by pointing to objects Enumerative Definition - correct answer definition by listing examples of the term Genus - correct answer A classification grouping that consists of a number of similar, closely related species Species - correct answer Species is the smaller sub group or class of the genus that has a specific difference Neologism - correct answer new word or expression Rhetorical Definition - correct answer influence the attitudes of the readers. - not a good way to define - Stipulative Definition - correct answer Coining new terms or introducing new meaning to a familiar word. - neologisms Précising Definition - correct answer Making a term more clear—reducing vagueness Verbal Dispute - correct answer Disagreement over use/meaning of language. Factual Dispute - correct answer Disagreement about facts Ambiguity - correct answer A word having two or more possible meanings that are not made clear by the context. Semantically Ambiguous - correct answer the meaning of the word is unclear. Syntactic Ambiguity - correct answer structurally unclear due to the improper order of the words. Amphiboly - correct answer a linguistic error that results from confused sentence structure, or *Syntactic* ambiguity Equivocation - correct answer a linguistic error that results from confusion about word meaning, or *Semantic* ambiguity Fallacy of Division - correct answer what holds true of a group must also be true of the individuals that make up the group Paradox of the Heap - correct answer This paradox arises due to vagueness and leads to absurd conclusions like there are no rich people, old people, or instances of "excessive use of force" Fallacy of Composition - correct answer the incorrect belief that what is true for the individual, or part, must necessarily be true for the group, or the whole - "The bridge over Alta Loma road connecting east and west campuses is comprised of subatomic particles that are invisible to the naked eye. Therefore, the bridge is invisible to the naked eye." According to Bertrand Russell, all language is subject to vagueness, because: - correct answer All language is a form of representation, and all representations are subject to vagueness What fallacy is committed in the following: According to the paper, the "stolen Matisse painting was found by tree." Clearly it follows we ought to give the reward money to that tree. - correct answer Amphiboly 2 Ways to Err in Argument - correct answer - Drawing an incorrect inference (*logic*) - Getting the facts wrong (*truth*) Dependent Premises - correct answer - The truth of both premises are required to support the same conclusion - If one is found to be false, then the conclusion cannot be supported