Physical Education EC-12 PACT Study
Guide, 261 Q&A, 2024.
Ann Gentile's Motor Learning Stages
In stage 1, the learner is getting the idea of the movement. In stage 2, the learner focuses on fixation, or
working on consistency and closed skills (e.g., executing the skill in isolation) and diversification, or
working on open skill in changing environments.
Ann Gentile's Motor Learning Stage 1
the learner is getting a grasp on the movements that are required for the skill. The learner decides on
the regulatory and nonregulatory conditions needed to perform the movement.
Regulatory Conditions
include things like equipment type, positions of players, and the proximity to the goal. These aspects
must be considered before a learner can be proficient.
Nonregulatory Conditions
conditions are those characteristics of the environment that have no influence or remain as indirect
influences on the movement characteristics required to achieve an action goal
Ann Gentile's Motor Learning Stage 2
the learner focuses on fixation, or working on consistency and closed skills (e.g., executing the skill in
isolation) and diversification, or working on open skill in changing environments.
Fitts and Posner's Motor Learning Stages
stages of learning are the cognitive stage, the associative stage, and the autonomous stage.
Cognitive Stage
the learner makes lots of errors, is inconsistent, and focuses heavily on the skill cues. During this stage,
the teacher is more direct with instructions, which include both verbal instructions and demonstrations,
to help the learner understand the movements. This first stage is similar to Gentile's stage 1 (getting the
idea of the movement).
(Fitts and Posner's Motor Learning Stages)
Associative Stage
the learner has grasp on the skill and understands the skill movement patterns. This learner will start to
become more consistent in movement patterns. As such, they will rely less on skill cues and begin to
refine movement by trial, error, and feedback, which aids in the development of self- correction skills.
During the associative stage, the teacher designs the practice activities after identifying the errors and
providing corrective feedback.
,(Fitts and Posner's Motor Learning Stages)
Autonomous Stage
the movements become automatic and the student can perform skills independently. The learner is able
to self-correct during the autonomous stage. During this stage, the teacher should focus on motivation
and design activities that refine the movements.
(Fitts and Posner's Motor Learning Stages)
Bernstein's Motor Learning Stages
focus on the degrees of freedom problem. The degrees of freedom problem refers to the variations that
can take place in a complex movement because of the number of isolated types of movement involved
in accomplishing a movement skill.
Degrees of Freedom Problem
refers to the variations that can take place in a complex movement because of the number of isolated
types of movement involved in accomplishing a movement skill.
(For instance, when a pitcher throws a baseball, his feet, legs, torso, arms, and hands are involved in
throwing the ball. Therefore, the goal is to reduce the number of problems that can arise from degrees
of freedom that may impede success to achieve the desired movement.)
Coordination
The ability to use two or more body parts together
Complex Movement
involve at least two compound movements. No other movement is more violent, explosive, and
comprehensive than a Clean and Jerk or a Snatch. Both of these movements incorporate loads of muscle.
Open Skills
occur in dynamic environments where things are always changing, like during team sports. There are
players, a ball (or object), coaches, and spectators, all of which create an unpredictable environment and
impact performance.
Closed skills
occur in environments that are stable and predictable, like golf. Closed skills are often introduced when
teaching novice learners, so that they can focus solely on the skill, or when teaching a closed and
controlled activity, like archery. Activities that are open in team sports are often taught in progression
from closed (e.g., dribbling in isolation) to open skills (e.g., dribbling during game play) to increase
competency.
Motor Learning
,the study of skill acquisition processes and includes the factors that help or hinder motor skill
performance. Motor learning can be a permanent or semi-permanent change. Once a person learns how
to ride a bike, they will not forget-even after a long absence of riding. Motor learning cannot be
observed directly. Instead, performance is observed over time to evaluate consistency and proficiency in
a movement skill, which aids in making a determination about whether or not learning has occurred.
Motor Performance
the demonstration of a skill or set of skills. In contrast to motor learning, motor performance is not
permanent, as it is contingent upon other factors. While one may have learned how to perform a jump
shot in basketball, the success of the jump shot will differ based on the changing environment. Further,
the individual's fitness level, fatigue, stress, and other factors impact performance. In contrast to motor
learning, motor performance can be observed.
Bernstein's motor learning stages
breaking down motor tasks into smaller pieces to develop regulation of individual movements, then
integrating them to develop coordination between those movements.
Bernstein's motor learning stage 1
freezing the limbs, which involves regulating as many degrees of freedom necessary to produce the
desired movement.
(For example, the leg and foot action of an overhand throw might be restricted so that the novice
learner can focus on the arm motion of the throw.)
Bernstein's motor learning Stage 2
releasing the limbs as degrees of freedom gradually increase as skills become more proficient.
Bernstein's motor learning Stage 3
exploiting the environment, (expert stage), which is when the learner is able to perform the tasks in a
variety of situations. For example, throwing at different speeds, throwing while running, throwing at
various distances and levels, and throwing with defenders all exploit the environment in different ways.
Knowledge of performance
is the quality of a performance. It is often felt by the learner while executing the movement or observed
while watching the movement. These feelings or observations help to identify either errors that need
correction or actions that need to be replicated to promote consistent performance, a process known as
descriptive feedback.
Descriptive Feedback.
specific information, in the form of written comments or verbal conversations, that help the learner
understand what she or he needs to do in order to improve.
Prescriptive Feedback
, feedback given to correct the error in performance.
Knowledge of Results
Or terminal feedback, is the outcome feedback that occurs after a skill has been performed.
"An example is evident during a free throw shot in basketball or a penalty kick in soccer where the
outcome is that the ball either goes in or out. When only outcome feedback (knowledge of results) is
given, there is little improvement of motor skills. Conversely, knowledge of performance feedback
appears more impactful for improving motor skill acquisition and performance."
Positve Transfer
when a previously learned skill benefits the performance of another skill.
"An example may include performing a forehand in racquetball after learning a forehand in tennis."
Negative Transfer
when a previously learned skill impedes the performance of another skill.
"An example is someone's knowledge of how to properly swing a baseball bat impeding their ability to
learn how to properly swing a golf club."
Zero Transfer
when a previously learned skill has no impact on the learning of a future skill. The skills are usually
unrelated (though not always).
" An example, dribbling in basketball has little to no impact on dribbling in soccer. However, positive
transfer is often evident during invasion games (team sports that involve two teams with the goal of
scoring an object into a goal) such as these because the offensive and defensive concepts and strategies
in basketball and soccer are the same."
Sandwich Method
three-step method of providing feedback is recommended:
1. Positive specific feedback is given on what the student is doing well.
2. Specific constructive feedback is given on what is wrong and why or how it impedes success.
3. Positive specific feedback completes the feedback loop by aivina evnlirit cues on hnw to correctlu
nerform the skill
Feedback
information that teachers provide to students to improve motor skills.
Guide, 261 Q&A, 2024.
Ann Gentile's Motor Learning Stages
In stage 1, the learner is getting the idea of the movement. In stage 2, the learner focuses on fixation, or
working on consistency and closed skills (e.g., executing the skill in isolation) and diversification, or
working on open skill in changing environments.
Ann Gentile's Motor Learning Stage 1
the learner is getting a grasp on the movements that are required for the skill. The learner decides on
the regulatory and nonregulatory conditions needed to perform the movement.
Regulatory Conditions
include things like equipment type, positions of players, and the proximity to the goal. These aspects
must be considered before a learner can be proficient.
Nonregulatory Conditions
conditions are those characteristics of the environment that have no influence or remain as indirect
influences on the movement characteristics required to achieve an action goal
Ann Gentile's Motor Learning Stage 2
the learner focuses on fixation, or working on consistency and closed skills (e.g., executing the skill in
isolation) and diversification, or working on open skill in changing environments.
Fitts and Posner's Motor Learning Stages
stages of learning are the cognitive stage, the associative stage, and the autonomous stage.
Cognitive Stage
the learner makes lots of errors, is inconsistent, and focuses heavily on the skill cues. During this stage,
the teacher is more direct with instructions, which include both verbal instructions and demonstrations,
to help the learner understand the movements. This first stage is similar to Gentile's stage 1 (getting the
idea of the movement).
(Fitts and Posner's Motor Learning Stages)
Associative Stage
the learner has grasp on the skill and understands the skill movement patterns. This learner will start to
become more consistent in movement patterns. As such, they will rely less on skill cues and begin to
refine movement by trial, error, and feedback, which aids in the development of self- correction skills.
During the associative stage, the teacher designs the practice activities after identifying the errors and
providing corrective feedback.
,(Fitts and Posner's Motor Learning Stages)
Autonomous Stage
the movements become automatic and the student can perform skills independently. The learner is able
to self-correct during the autonomous stage. During this stage, the teacher should focus on motivation
and design activities that refine the movements.
(Fitts and Posner's Motor Learning Stages)
Bernstein's Motor Learning Stages
focus on the degrees of freedom problem. The degrees of freedom problem refers to the variations that
can take place in a complex movement because of the number of isolated types of movement involved
in accomplishing a movement skill.
Degrees of Freedom Problem
refers to the variations that can take place in a complex movement because of the number of isolated
types of movement involved in accomplishing a movement skill.
(For instance, when a pitcher throws a baseball, his feet, legs, torso, arms, and hands are involved in
throwing the ball. Therefore, the goal is to reduce the number of problems that can arise from degrees
of freedom that may impede success to achieve the desired movement.)
Coordination
The ability to use two or more body parts together
Complex Movement
involve at least two compound movements. No other movement is more violent, explosive, and
comprehensive than a Clean and Jerk or a Snatch. Both of these movements incorporate loads of muscle.
Open Skills
occur in dynamic environments where things are always changing, like during team sports. There are
players, a ball (or object), coaches, and spectators, all of which create an unpredictable environment and
impact performance.
Closed skills
occur in environments that are stable and predictable, like golf. Closed skills are often introduced when
teaching novice learners, so that they can focus solely on the skill, or when teaching a closed and
controlled activity, like archery. Activities that are open in team sports are often taught in progression
from closed (e.g., dribbling in isolation) to open skills (e.g., dribbling during game play) to increase
competency.
Motor Learning
,the study of skill acquisition processes and includes the factors that help or hinder motor skill
performance. Motor learning can be a permanent or semi-permanent change. Once a person learns how
to ride a bike, they will not forget-even after a long absence of riding. Motor learning cannot be
observed directly. Instead, performance is observed over time to evaluate consistency and proficiency in
a movement skill, which aids in making a determination about whether or not learning has occurred.
Motor Performance
the demonstration of a skill or set of skills. In contrast to motor learning, motor performance is not
permanent, as it is contingent upon other factors. While one may have learned how to perform a jump
shot in basketball, the success of the jump shot will differ based on the changing environment. Further,
the individual's fitness level, fatigue, stress, and other factors impact performance. In contrast to motor
learning, motor performance can be observed.
Bernstein's motor learning stages
breaking down motor tasks into smaller pieces to develop regulation of individual movements, then
integrating them to develop coordination between those movements.
Bernstein's motor learning stage 1
freezing the limbs, which involves regulating as many degrees of freedom necessary to produce the
desired movement.
(For example, the leg and foot action of an overhand throw might be restricted so that the novice
learner can focus on the arm motion of the throw.)
Bernstein's motor learning Stage 2
releasing the limbs as degrees of freedom gradually increase as skills become more proficient.
Bernstein's motor learning Stage 3
exploiting the environment, (expert stage), which is when the learner is able to perform the tasks in a
variety of situations. For example, throwing at different speeds, throwing while running, throwing at
various distances and levels, and throwing with defenders all exploit the environment in different ways.
Knowledge of performance
is the quality of a performance. It is often felt by the learner while executing the movement or observed
while watching the movement. These feelings or observations help to identify either errors that need
correction or actions that need to be replicated to promote consistent performance, a process known as
descriptive feedback.
Descriptive Feedback.
specific information, in the form of written comments or verbal conversations, that help the learner
understand what she or he needs to do in order to improve.
Prescriptive Feedback
, feedback given to correct the error in performance.
Knowledge of Results
Or terminal feedback, is the outcome feedback that occurs after a skill has been performed.
"An example is evident during a free throw shot in basketball or a penalty kick in soccer where the
outcome is that the ball either goes in or out. When only outcome feedback (knowledge of results) is
given, there is little improvement of motor skills. Conversely, knowledge of performance feedback
appears more impactful for improving motor skill acquisition and performance."
Positve Transfer
when a previously learned skill benefits the performance of another skill.
"An example may include performing a forehand in racquetball after learning a forehand in tennis."
Negative Transfer
when a previously learned skill impedes the performance of another skill.
"An example is someone's knowledge of how to properly swing a baseball bat impeding their ability to
learn how to properly swing a golf club."
Zero Transfer
when a previously learned skill has no impact on the learning of a future skill. The skills are usually
unrelated (though not always).
" An example, dribbling in basketball has little to no impact on dribbling in soccer. However, positive
transfer is often evident during invasion games (team sports that involve two teams with the goal of
scoring an object into a goal) such as these because the offensive and defensive concepts and strategies
in basketball and soccer are the same."
Sandwich Method
three-step method of providing feedback is recommended:
1. Positive specific feedback is given on what the student is doing well.
2. Specific constructive feedback is given on what is wrong and why or how it impedes success.
3. Positive specific feedback completes the feedback loop by aivina evnlirit cues on hnw to correctlu
nerform the skill
Feedback
information that teachers provide to students to improve motor skills.
