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PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES : APPLICATION AND INTERPRATATION 2ND VERSION COMPLETE STUDY GUIDE

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Programming Languages: Application and Interpretation Version Second Edition Contents 1 Introduction 7 1.1 Our Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.2 The Structure of This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.3 The Language of This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2 Everything (We Will Say) About Parsing 10 2.1 A Lightweight, Built-In First Half of a Parser . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.2 A Convenient Shortcut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.3 Types for Parsing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.4 Completing the Parser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.5 Coda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 3 A First Look at Interpretation 13 3.1 Representing Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 3.2 Writing an Interpreter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 3.3 Did You Notice? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.4 Growing the Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 4 A First Taste of Desugaring 16 4.1 Extension: Binary Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 4.2 Extension: Unary Negation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 5 Adding Functions to the Language 19 5.1 Defining Data Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 5.2 Growing the Interpreter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 5.3 Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 5.4 The Interpreter, Resumed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 5.5 Oh Wait, There’s More! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 6 From Substitution to Environments 25 6.1 Introducing the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 6.2 Interpreting with Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 6.3 Deferring Correctly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 6.4 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 6.4.1 How Bad Is It? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 6.4.2 The Top-Level Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 6.5 Exposing the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 7 Functions Anywhere 31 7.1 Functions as Expressions and Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 7.2 Nested What? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 7.3 Implementing Closures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 7.4 Substitution, Again . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 7.5 Sugaring Over Anonymity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 8 Mutation: Structures and Variables 41 8.1 Mutable Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 8.1.1 A Simple Model of Mutable Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 8.1.2 Scaffolding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 8.1.3 Interaction with Closures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 8.1.4 Understanding the Interpretation of Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . 44 8.1.5 Can the Environment Help? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 8.1.6 Introducing the Store . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 8.1.7 Interpreting Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 8.1.8 The Bigger Picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 8.2 Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 8.2.1 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 8.2.2 Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 8.2.3 Interpreting Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 8.3 The Design of Stateful Language Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 8.4 Parameter Passing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 9 Recursion and Cycles: Procedures and Data 62 9.1 Recursive and Cyclic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 9.2 Recursive Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 9.3 Premature Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 9.4 Without Explicit State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 10 Objects 67 10.1 Objects Without Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 10.1.1 Objects in the Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 10.1.2 Objects by Desugaring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 10.1.3 Objects as Named Collections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 10.1.4 Constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 10.1.5 State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 10.1.6 Private Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 10.1.7 Static Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 10.1.8 Objects with Self-Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 10.1.9 Dynamic Dispatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 10.2 Member Access Design Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 10.3 What (Goes In) Else? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 10.3.1 Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 10.3.2 Prototypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 10.3.3 Multiple Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 10.3.4 Super-Duper! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 10.3.5 Mixins and Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 11 Memory Management 81 11.1 Garbage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 11.2 What is “Correct” Garbage Recovery? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 11.3 Manual Reclamation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 11.3.1 The Cost of Fully-Manual Reclamation . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 11.3.2 Reference Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 11.4 Automated Reclamation, or Garbage Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 11.4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 11.4.2 Truth and Provability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 11.4.3 Central Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 11.5 Convervative Garbage Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 11.6 Precise Garbage Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 12 Representation Decisions 87 12.1 Changing Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 12.2 Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 12.3 Changing Meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 12.4 One More Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 13 Desugaring as a Language Feature 90 13.1 A First Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 13.2 Syntax Transformers as Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 13.3 Guards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 13.4 Or: A Simple Macro with Many Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 13.4.1 A First Attempt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 13.4.2 Guarding Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 13.4.3 Hygiene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 13.5 Identifier Capture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 13.6 Influence on Compiler Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 13.7 Desugaring in Other Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 14 Control Operations 102 14.1 Control on the Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 14.1.1 Program Decomposition into Now and Later . . . . . . . . . . 103 14.1.2 A Partial Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 14.1.3 Achieving Statelessness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 14.1.4 Interaction with State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 14.2 Continuation-Passing Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 14.2.1 Implementation by Desugaring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 14.2.2 Converting the Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 14.2.3 Implementation in the Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 14.3 Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 14.3.1 Design Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 14.3.2 Implementing Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 14.4 Continuations and Stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 14.5 Tail Calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 14.6 Continuations as a Language Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 14.6.1 Presentation in the Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 14.6.2 Defining Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 14.6.3 Defining Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 14.6.4 Better Primitives for Web Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 15 Checking Program Invariants Statically: Types 130 15.1 Types as Static Disciplines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 15.2 A Classical View of Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 15.2.1 A Simple Type Checker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 15.2.2 Type-Checking Conditionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 15.2.3 Recursion in Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 15.2.4 Recursion in Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 15.2.5 Types, Time, and Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 15.2.6 Types and Mutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 15.2.7 The Central Theorem: Type Soundness . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 15.3 Extensions to the Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 15.3.1 Explicit Parametric Polymorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 15.3.2 Type Inference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 15.3.3 Union Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 15.3.4 Nominal Versus Structural Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 15.3.5 Intersection Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 15.3.6 Recursive Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 15.3.7 Subtyping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 15.3.8 Object Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 16 Checking Program Invariants Dynamically: Contracts 177 16.1 Contracts as Predicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 16.2 Tags, Types, and Observations on Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 16.3 Higher-Order Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 16.4 Syntactic Convenience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 16.5 Extending to Compound Data Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 16.6 More on Contracts and Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 16.7 Contracts and Mutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 16.8 Combining Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 16.9 Blame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 17 Alternate Application Semantics 193 17.1 Lazy Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 17.1.1 A Lazy Application Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 17.1.2 What Are Values? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 17.1.3 What Causes Evaluation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 17.1.4 An Interpreter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 17.1.5 Laziness and Mutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 17.1.6 Caching Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 17.2 Reactive Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 17.2.1 Motivating Example: A Timer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 17.2.2 Callback Types are Four-Letter Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 17.2.3 The Alternative: Reactive Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 17.2.4 Implementing Transparent Reactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 17.3 Backtracking Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 17.3.1 Searching for Satisfaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

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PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES : APPLICATION AND INTERPRATATION 2ND VERSION COMPLETE STUDY GUIDE

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