Contents
Hazards.................................................................................................................................................... 7
Geophysical hazards ........................................................................................................................... 7
Atmospheric hazards .......................................................................................................................... 7
Risk perception ....................................................................................................................................... 8
Influences on individuals risk perception ........................................................................................... 8
The 3 perceptions of risk..................................................................................................................... 8
Risk perception phenomena ................................................................................................................... 9
The Perception Gap ............................................................................................................................ 9
Abstract vs Real ................................................................................................................................... 9
The Risk vs Benefit choice ................................................................................................................... 9
“I’ve lived through this before” .......................................................................................................... 9
The false sense of control ................................................................................................................... 9
The gamblers fallacy ......................................................................................................................... 10
Improvements in technology ............................................................................................................ 10
Physical vs Natural ............................................................................................................................ 10
Misperceptions ................................................................................................................................. 10
Corrupt governments........................................................................................................................ 10
Rare, low-probability hazards and familiar common hazards .......................................................... 10
Foreigners ......................................................................................................................................... 10
Confirming the risk............................................................................................................................ 10
Immediately imminent...................................................................................................................... 10
Factors reducing capacity to cope (high vulnerability) ......................................................................... 11
Global hazard trends ............................................................................................................................. 12
Tropical Storms ..................................................................................................................................... 13
Formation:......................................................................................................................................... 13
Cross section of a hurricane + its features ............................................................................................ 14
Hurricane hazards ................................................................................................................................. 14
Strong winds: .................................................................................................................................... 14
Heavy rainfall: ................................................................................................................................... 14
Storm surges: .................................................................................................................................... 15
Main impacts of tropical storms ........................................................................................................... 16
PRIMARY IMPACTS ............................................................................................................................ 16
SECONDARY IMPACTS ....................................................................................................................... 16
Measuring tropical storms .................................................................................................................... 16
,Management of Tropical Storms .......................................................................................................... 17
1. Modify the vulnerability: the people ........................................................................................... 17
2. Mitigation: modify the event ....................................................................................................... 18
3. Modify the loss: post the event ................................................................................................... 18
Tropical Storm Risk Perception Case Study .......................................................................................... 19
CS: Hurricane Katrina MEDC 2005 ........................................................................................................ 19
CS: Hurricane Nargis (Myanmar) LEDC 2008 ........................................................................................ 20
CS: Hurricane Mitch (Central America) LEDCs Honduras and Nicaragua 1998 .................................... 21
CS: Hurricane Matthew – Haiti LEDC – Low Capacity to Cope.............................................................. 22
CS: Hurricane Sandy – Eastern Seaboard USA MEDC ........................................................................... 22
Tornados ............................................................................................................................................... 23
Formation.......................................................................................................................................... 23
Where and when do tornados form? ............................................................................................... 23
Tornado Hazards ................................................................................................................................... 24
Strongest winds on earth: ................................................................................................................. 24
Strong rotational movement: ........................................................................................................... 24
The very low, localised atmospheric pressure: ................................................................................. 24
Main impacts of tornadoes ................................................................................................................... 24
PRIMARY IMPACTS ............................................................................................................................ 24
SECONDARY IMPACTS ....................................................................................................................... 24
Measuring tornadoes ............................................................................................................................ 24
Management of Tornadoes .................................................................................................................. 25
1. Modify the vulnerability: the people ........................................................................................... 25
2. Mitigation: modify the event ....................................................................................................... 25
3. Modify the loss: post the event ................................................................................................... 25
Tornado Risk Perception ....................................................................................................................... 26
CS: Tangail, Bangladesh 1996 ............................................................................................................... 27
CS: Oklahoma Tornadoes, May 1999 .................................................................................................... 28
Mass Movements.................................................................................................................................. 29
Landslides.............................................................................................................................................. 29
Shear stress and shear strength............................................................................................................ 29
Pore water pressure.......................................................................................................................... 29
Triggers and contributary factors to landslides .................................................................................... 29
Landslide indication .............................................................................................................................. 31
Main impacts of landslides ................................................................................................................... 31
PRIMARY IMPACTS ............................................................................................................................ 31
, SECONDARY IMPACTS ....................................................................................................................... 31
Management of landslides.................................................................................................................... 31
1. Modify the vulnerability: the people ........................................................................................... 31
2. Mitigation: modify the event ....................................................................................................... 32
3. Modify the loss: post the event ................................................................................................... 32
*More on hazard mapping: .............................................................................................................. 32
Mass Movement Risk Perception ......................................................................................................... 33
Landslide Risk Perception Case Study ............................................................................................... 33
.............................................................................................................................................................. 34
CS: Landslide Vaiont Dam Disaster 1963 – Italy MEDC ......................................................................... 34
CS: Landslide Human Induced 1998 – Italy MEDC ................................................................................ 34
CS: Landslide Mitigation HIGH-TECH: Hong Kong MEDC ...................................................................... 34
CS: Landslide Mitigation LOW-TECH: Peru LEDC .................................................................................. 34
Avalanches ............................................................................................................................................ 35
Slab avalanches ................................................................................................................................. 35
Conditions required for avalanches ...................................................................................................... 35
Triggers and contributary factors to avalanches .................................................................................. 36
Main impacts of avalanches.................................................................................................................. 37
PRIMARY IMPACTS ............................................................................................................................ 37
SECONDARY IMPACTS ....................................................................................................................... 37
Management of avalanches .................................................................................................................. 37
1. Modify the vulnerability: the people ........................................................................................... 37
2. Mitigation: modify the event ....................................................................................................... 37
3. Modify the loss: post the event ................................................................................................... 38
*More on avalanche mapping: ......................................................................................................... 38
Avalanche Risk Perception .................................................................................................................... 38
CS: The European Alps Avalanches, February 1999 .............................................................................. 40
CS: Nepal, April 25th 2015 ..................................................................................................................... 42
Tectonic hazards ................................................................................................................................... 43
The structure of the earth................................................................................................................. 43
The Moho discontinuity .................................................................................................................... 43
Plate boundaries ................................................................................................................................... 44
Constructive → ............................................................................................................................ 44
Conservative ..................................................................................................................................... 44
Destructive C→ C .......................................................................................................................... 44
Destructive C→ O and O→ O ................................................................................................... 44
,Earthquakes .......................................................................................................................................... 45
4 categories of earthquakes ............................................................................................................. 45
Recording earthquakes ......................................................................................................................... 45
Richter scale ...................................................................................................................................... 45
Mercalli scale .................................................................................................................................... 45
The Richter scale vs the Mercalli scale ............................................................................................. 46
Factors determining the severity of earthquakes................................................................................. 46
Triggers and contributary factors to earthquakes ................................................................................ 47
Human activities: .............................................................................................................................. 47
1) Underground disposal of liquid wastes e.g. fracking ............................................................ 47
2) Underground nuclear testing ................................................................................................ 47
3) Increasing crustal loading ..................................................................................................... 47
Main impacts of earthquakes ............................................................................................................... 47
PRIMARY IMPACTS ............................................................................................................................ 47
SECONDARY IMPACTS ....................................................................................................................... 47
Management of earthquakes ............................................................................................................... 48
1. Modify the vulnerability: the people ........................................................................................... 48
2. Mitigation: modify the event ....................................................................................................... 49
3. Modify the loss: post the event ................................................................................................... 50
Earthquake Risk Perception .................................................................................................................. 51
CS: Earthquake China, Sichuan - May 2008 .......................................................................................... 52
Japan – Kobe Earthquake, January 1995 .............................................................................................. 52
CS: Haiti earthquake, January 2010 (LEDC)........................................................................................... 53
Tsunami’s .............................................................................................................................................. 55
Formation.......................................................................................................................................... 55
Main impacts of tsunami’s .................................................................................................................... 55
Factors influencing the impacts of a tsunami ....................................................................................... 55
1) Wave energy ......................................................................................................................... 55
2) Shape of coastline .................................................................................................................... 55
3) Relief of coastline ..................................................................................................................... 56
4) Presence of natural defences .................................................................................................. 56
5) Demography ............................................................................................................................. 56
6) Lack of experience .................................................................................................................... 56
7) Lack of/inadequate warning & evacuation plans ................................................................... 56
Management of tsunami’s .................................................................................................................... 56
1. Modify the vulnerability: the people ........................................................................................... 56
, 2. Mitigation: modify the event ....................................................................................................... 57
3. Modify the loss: post the event ................................................................................................... 58
Tsunami risk perception........................................................................................................................ 58
CS: Boxing Day Tsunami (Indian Ocean) ............................................................................................... 59
Volcanos ................................................................................................................................................ 60
Types of volcanoes ............................................................................................................................ 60
Shield:................................................................................................................................................ 60
Icelandic lava eruptions ................................................................................................................ 60
Hawaiian eruptions ....................................................................................................................... 60
Composite: ........................................................................................................................................ 61
Strombolian eruption .................................................................................................................... 61
Vulcanian eruptions ...................................................................................................................... 61
Vesuvian eruptions ....................................................................................................................... 61
Plinian eruption ............................................................................................................................. 61
Lava types ............................................................................................................................................. 61
Basic lava: .......................................................................................................................................... 61
Acid/Andesitic: .................................................................................................................................. 61
Types of lava flow ................................................................................................................................. 62
AA flow: ............................................................................................................................................. 62
Pahoehoe flow: ................................................................................................................................. 62
Primary Volcano Hazards ...................................................................................................................... 62
1. Lava ............................................................................................................................................... 62
2. Pyroclastic flow ............................................................................................................................. 62
3. Nuees Ardentes............................................................................................................................. 62
4. Volcanic gases ............................................................................................................................... 62
5. Ash................................................................................................................................................. 62
6. Tephra ........................................................................................................................................... 63
Secondary Volcano Hazards .................................................................................................................. 63
1. Mudflow ........................................................................................................................................ 63
2. Lahar.............................................................................................................................................. 63
3. Tsunami ......................................................................................................................................... 63
4. Jokulhlaup ..................................................................................................................................... 63
Management of Volcanoes ................................................................................................................... 64
1. Modify the vulnerability: the people ........................................................................................... 64
2. Mitigation: modify the event ....................................................................................................... 64
3. Modify the loss: post the event ................................................................................................... 64
, *Hazard mapping.......................................................................................................................... 65
CS: Mt Pinatubo, the Philippines, 1991 ................................................................................................ 65
CS: Nyos, Cameroon, West Africa, 1986 – CO2 gas kills thousands ..................................................... 66
CS: Nevado Del Ruiz, Colombia, 1985 – Lahar/Mudflow caused by Volcano ....................................... 67
CS: Nyiragongo, East Africa – lava eruption LEDC................................................................................. 68
CS: Mt.St Helens, Washington State (not D.C) MEDC ........................................................................... 69
, Hazards
A hazard is a naturally occurring event which has the potential to cause loss of life/property
– without people its just a natural event, with the presence of people it’s a hazard.
EVENT DEFINITION OCCURANCE
Tropical storms Intense low pressure systems/storms in the • Later summer/early autumn in the
subtropics bringing strong winds, heavy rain Northern Hem when the ITCZ is
and storm surges – large scale atmospheric dispersed to its max
disturbance • Over deep warm oceans (between
the subtropics)
Tornados Small scale atmospheric disturbances - violent • Night/evening
destructive whirl wind extending down from a • Spring/early summer
mass of dark clouds as a whirling funnel
Earthquakes Earthquakes are the vibration/shaking of • Occurs at ALL plate boundaries
earth’s surface, they’re made up of seismic • Found mainly in the middle of
waves which are released when pressure is oceans & edges of continents
released from plate margins jerking apart
Volcanoes Volcanoes occur when there is a rupture in the • Happens along constructive and
crust of the earth allowing lava, ash and gases destructive plate margins (edge of
to escape from a magma chamber through continents)
cracks and fissures in earth’s crust • Largest concentration around the
Pacific
Drought Lack/shortage of water for an unusually long • Severe drought usually occurs near
period of time the centre of continents &
between the subtropics
Landslide Downslope movements of rocks and soil under • More common in tropical areas
the influence of gravity near slopes and coastal areas
Floods The capacity of a river channel is exceeded by • Occurs at coast and along river
water discharge
Tsunami Tsunamis are a series of giant waves caused by • 80-90% are in the Pacific Ocean
underwater earthquakes, landslides, volcanic • 90% are generated by earthquakes
eruptions or meteor impact with the ocean • The average earthquake causes a
which generate tsunamis by creating a 9m tsunami but the upper limit is
sufficient force and violent movement of the 40m
earth. This causes a substantial and sudden
displacement of a huge amount of water
Atmospheric hazards Geophysical hazards
Hydrological – flood, drought Earthquakes and volcanoes
Aeolian – (wind) hurricanes, tornadoes
Thermal – drought, snow, fog
Hazards.................................................................................................................................................... 7
Geophysical hazards ........................................................................................................................... 7
Atmospheric hazards .......................................................................................................................... 7
Risk perception ....................................................................................................................................... 8
Influences on individuals risk perception ........................................................................................... 8
The 3 perceptions of risk..................................................................................................................... 8
Risk perception phenomena ................................................................................................................... 9
The Perception Gap ............................................................................................................................ 9
Abstract vs Real ................................................................................................................................... 9
The Risk vs Benefit choice ................................................................................................................... 9
“I’ve lived through this before” .......................................................................................................... 9
The false sense of control ................................................................................................................... 9
The gamblers fallacy ......................................................................................................................... 10
Improvements in technology ............................................................................................................ 10
Physical vs Natural ............................................................................................................................ 10
Misperceptions ................................................................................................................................. 10
Corrupt governments........................................................................................................................ 10
Rare, low-probability hazards and familiar common hazards .......................................................... 10
Foreigners ......................................................................................................................................... 10
Confirming the risk............................................................................................................................ 10
Immediately imminent...................................................................................................................... 10
Factors reducing capacity to cope (high vulnerability) ......................................................................... 11
Global hazard trends ............................................................................................................................. 12
Tropical Storms ..................................................................................................................................... 13
Formation:......................................................................................................................................... 13
Cross section of a hurricane + its features ............................................................................................ 14
Hurricane hazards ................................................................................................................................. 14
Strong winds: .................................................................................................................................... 14
Heavy rainfall: ................................................................................................................................... 14
Storm surges: .................................................................................................................................... 15
Main impacts of tropical storms ........................................................................................................... 16
PRIMARY IMPACTS ............................................................................................................................ 16
SECONDARY IMPACTS ....................................................................................................................... 16
Measuring tropical storms .................................................................................................................... 16
,Management of Tropical Storms .......................................................................................................... 17
1. Modify the vulnerability: the people ........................................................................................... 17
2. Mitigation: modify the event ....................................................................................................... 18
3. Modify the loss: post the event ................................................................................................... 18
Tropical Storm Risk Perception Case Study .......................................................................................... 19
CS: Hurricane Katrina MEDC 2005 ........................................................................................................ 19
CS: Hurricane Nargis (Myanmar) LEDC 2008 ........................................................................................ 20
CS: Hurricane Mitch (Central America) LEDCs Honduras and Nicaragua 1998 .................................... 21
CS: Hurricane Matthew – Haiti LEDC – Low Capacity to Cope.............................................................. 22
CS: Hurricane Sandy – Eastern Seaboard USA MEDC ........................................................................... 22
Tornados ............................................................................................................................................... 23
Formation.......................................................................................................................................... 23
Where and when do tornados form? ............................................................................................... 23
Tornado Hazards ................................................................................................................................... 24
Strongest winds on earth: ................................................................................................................. 24
Strong rotational movement: ........................................................................................................... 24
The very low, localised atmospheric pressure: ................................................................................. 24
Main impacts of tornadoes ................................................................................................................... 24
PRIMARY IMPACTS ............................................................................................................................ 24
SECONDARY IMPACTS ....................................................................................................................... 24
Measuring tornadoes ............................................................................................................................ 24
Management of Tornadoes .................................................................................................................. 25
1. Modify the vulnerability: the people ........................................................................................... 25
2. Mitigation: modify the event ....................................................................................................... 25
3. Modify the loss: post the event ................................................................................................... 25
Tornado Risk Perception ....................................................................................................................... 26
CS: Tangail, Bangladesh 1996 ............................................................................................................... 27
CS: Oklahoma Tornadoes, May 1999 .................................................................................................... 28
Mass Movements.................................................................................................................................. 29
Landslides.............................................................................................................................................. 29
Shear stress and shear strength............................................................................................................ 29
Pore water pressure.......................................................................................................................... 29
Triggers and contributary factors to landslides .................................................................................... 29
Landslide indication .............................................................................................................................. 31
Main impacts of landslides ................................................................................................................... 31
PRIMARY IMPACTS ............................................................................................................................ 31
, SECONDARY IMPACTS ....................................................................................................................... 31
Management of landslides.................................................................................................................... 31
1. Modify the vulnerability: the people ........................................................................................... 31
2. Mitigation: modify the event ....................................................................................................... 32
3. Modify the loss: post the event ................................................................................................... 32
*More on hazard mapping: .............................................................................................................. 32
Mass Movement Risk Perception ......................................................................................................... 33
Landslide Risk Perception Case Study ............................................................................................... 33
.............................................................................................................................................................. 34
CS: Landslide Vaiont Dam Disaster 1963 – Italy MEDC ......................................................................... 34
CS: Landslide Human Induced 1998 – Italy MEDC ................................................................................ 34
CS: Landslide Mitigation HIGH-TECH: Hong Kong MEDC ...................................................................... 34
CS: Landslide Mitigation LOW-TECH: Peru LEDC .................................................................................. 34
Avalanches ............................................................................................................................................ 35
Slab avalanches ................................................................................................................................. 35
Conditions required for avalanches ...................................................................................................... 35
Triggers and contributary factors to avalanches .................................................................................. 36
Main impacts of avalanches.................................................................................................................. 37
PRIMARY IMPACTS ............................................................................................................................ 37
SECONDARY IMPACTS ....................................................................................................................... 37
Management of avalanches .................................................................................................................. 37
1. Modify the vulnerability: the people ........................................................................................... 37
2. Mitigation: modify the event ....................................................................................................... 37
3. Modify the loss: post the event ................................................................................................... 38
*More on avalanche mapping: ......................................................................................................... 38
Avalanche Risk Perception .................................................................................................................... 38
CS: The European Alps Avalanches, February 1999 .............................................................................. 40
CS: Nepal, April 25th 2015 ..................................................................................................................... 42
Tectonic hazards ................................................................................................................................... 43
The structure of the earth................................................................................................................. 43
The Moho discontinuity .................................................................................................................... 43
Plate boundaries ................................................................................................................................... 44
Constructive → ............................................................................................................................ 44
Conservative ..................................................................................................................................... 44
Destructive C→ C .......................................................................................................................... 44
Destructive C→ O and O→ O ................................................................................................... 44
,Earthquakes .......................................................................................................................................... 45
4 categories of earthquakes ............................................................................................................. 45
Recording earthquakes ......................................................................................................................... 45
Richter scale ...................................................................................................................................... 45
Mercalli scale .................................................................................................................................... 45
The Richter scale vs the Mercalli scale ............................................................................................. 46
Factors determining the severity of earthquakes................................................................................. 46
Triggers and contributary factors to earthquakes ................................................................................ 47
Human activities: .............................................................................................................................. 47
1) Underground disposal of liquid wastes e.g. fracking ............................................................ 47
2) Underground nuclear testing ................................................................................................ 47
3) Increasing crustal loading ..................................................................................................... 47
Main impacts of earthquakes ............................................................................................................... 47
PRIMARY IMPACTS ............................................................................................................................ 47
SECONDARY IMPACTS ....................................................................................................................... 47
Management of earthquakes ............................................................................................................... 48
1. Modify the vulnerability: the people ........................................................................................... 48
2. Mitigation: modify the event ....................................................................................................... 49
3. Modify the loss: post the event ................................................................................................... 50
Earthquake Risk Perception .................................................................................................................. 51
CS: Earthquake China, Sichuan - May 2008 .......................................................................................... 52
Japan – Kobe Earthquake, January 1995 .............................................................................................. 52
CS: Haiti earthquake, January 2010 (LEDC)........................................................................................... 53
Tsunami’s .............................................................................................................................................. 55
Formation.......................................................................................................................................... 55
Main impacts of tsunami’s .................................................................................................................... 55
Factors influencing the impacts of a tsunami ....................................................................................... 55
1) Wave energy ......................................................................................................................... 55
2) Shape of coastline .................................................................................................................... 55
3) Relief of coastline ..................................................................................................................... 56
4) Presence of natural defences .................................................................................................. 56
5) Demography ............................................................................................................................. 56
6) Lack of experience .................................................................................................................... 56
7) Lack of/inadequate warning & evacuation plans ................................................................... 56
Management of tsunami’s .................................................................................................................... 56
1. Modify the vulnerability: the people ........................................................................................... 56
, 2. Mitigation: modify the event ....................................................................................................... 57
3. Modify the loss: post the event ................................................................................................... 58
Tsunami risk perception........................................................................................................................ 58
CS: Boxing Day Tsunami (Indian Ocean) ............................................................................................... 59
Volcanos ................................................................................................................................................ 60
Types of volcanoes ............................................................................................................................ 60
Shield:................................................................................................................................................ 60
Icelandic lava eruptions ................................................................................................................ 60
Hawaiian eruptions ....................................................................................................................... 60
Composite: ........................................................................................................................................ 61
Strombolian eruption .................................................................................................................... 61
Vulcanian eruptions ...................................................................................................................... 61
Vesuvian eruptions ....................................................................................................................... 61
Plinian eruption ............................................................................................................................. 61
Lava types ............................................................................................................................................. 61
Basic lava: .......................................................................................................................................... 61
Acid/Andesitic: .................................................................................................................................. 61
Types of lava flow ................................................................................................................................. 62
AA flow: ............................................................................................................................................. 62
Pahoehoe flow: ................................................................................................................................. 62
Primary Volcano Hazards ...................................................................................................................... 62
1. Lava ............................................................................................................................................... 62
2. Pyroclastic flow ............................................................................................................................. 62
3. Nuees Ardentes............................................................................................................................. 62
4. Volcanic gases ............................................................................................................................... 62
5. Ash................................................................................................................................................. 62
6. Tephra ........................................................................................................................................... 63
Secondary Volcano Hazards .................................................................................................................. 63
1. Mudflow ........................................................................................................................................ 63
2. Lahar.............................................................................................................................................. 63
3. Tsunami ......................................................................................................................................... 63
4. Jokulhlaup ..................................................................................................................................... 63
Management of Volcanoes ................................................................................................................... 64
1. Modify the vulnerability: the people ........................................................................................... 64
2. Mitigation: modify the event ....................................................................................................... 64
3. Modify the loss: post the event ................................................................................................... 64
, *Hazard mapping.......................................................................................................................... 65
CS: Mt Pinatubo, the Philippines, 1991 ................................................................................................ 65
CS: Nyos, Cameroon, West Africa, 1986 – CO2 gas kills thousands ..................................................... 66
CS: Nevado Del Ruiz, Colombia, 1985 – Lahar/Mudflow caused by Volcano ....................................... 67
CS: Nyiragongo, East Africa – lava eruption LEDC................................................................................. 68
CS: Mt.St Helens, Washington State (not D.C) MEDC ........................................................................... 69
, Hazards
A hazard is a naturally occurring event which has the potential to cause loss of life/property
– without people its just a natural event, with the presence of people it’s a hazard.
EVENT DEFINITION OCCURANCE
Tropical storms Intense low pressure systems/storms in the • Later summer/early autumn in the
subtropics bringing strong winds, heavy rain Northern Hem when the ITCZ is
and storm surges – large scale atmospheric dispersed to its max
disturbance • Over deep warm oceans (between
the subtropics)
Tornados Small scale atmospheric disturbances - violent • Night/evening
destructive whirl wind extending down from a • Spring/early summer
mass of dark clouds as a whirling funnel
Earthquakes Earthquakes are the vibration/shaking of • Occurs at ALL plate boundaries
earth’s surface, they’re made up of seismic • Found mainly in the middle of
waves which are released when pressure is oceans & edges of continents
released from plate margins jerking apart
Volcanoes Volcanoes occur when there is a rupture in the • Happens along constructive and
crust of the earth allowing lava, ash and gases destructive plate margins (edge of
to escape from a magma chamber through continents)
cracks and fissures in earth’s crust • Largest concentration around the
Pacific
Drought Lack/shortage of water for an unusually long • Severe drought usually occurs near
period of time the centre of continents &
between the subtropics
Landslide Downslope movements of rocks and soil under • More common in tropical areas
the influence of gravity near slopes and coastal areas
Floods The capacity of a river channel is exceeded by • Occurs at coast and along river
water discharge
Tsunami Tsunamis are a series of giant waves caused by • 80-90% are in the Pacific Ocean
underwater earthquakes, landslides, volcanic • 90% are generated by earthquakes
eruptions or meteor impact with the ocean • The average earthquake causes a
which generate tsunamis by creating a 9m tsunami but the upper limit is
sufficient force and violent movement of the 40m
earth. This causes a substantial and sudden
displacement of a huge amount of water
Atmospheric hazards Geophysical hazards
Hydrological – flood, drought Earthquakes and volcanoes
Aeolian – (wind) hurricanes, tornadoes
Thermal – drought, snow, fog
