INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 1 STUDY GUIDE 1 |CHAPTER 1-8| 100% VERRIFIED

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 1 STUDY GUIDE 1 |CHAPTER 1-8| 100% VERRIFIED CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Objective 1.1 Define psychology: The study of behavior and mental process. Key Terms Psychology: The science that studies behavior and the psychological and cognitive processes that underlie it, and the profession that applies the accumulated knowledge of this science to practical problems. Exercises 1. Put a check mark by each statement that is true regarding psychology. X Psychologists study human behavior. X Psychologists study animal behavior. X Psychologists study emotions and mental processes. Psychology and "common sense" lead to the same conclusions about behavior and mental processes. Psychology is not a science. Objective 1.2 Define the scientific method, and explain how it is used in psychology. Key Terms Scientific Method: The orderly systematic procedure that researchers follow as they identify a research problem, design a study, to investigate the problem, collect and analyze data, draw conclusions, and communicate their findings. Step 1: Observe &Theorize • A theory is an explanation that organizes separate pieces of information in a coherent way. Researchers generally develop a theory only after they have collected a lot of evidence and made sure their research results can be reproduced by others. Step 2: Formulate a Hypothesis • A hypothesis is a testable prediction of what will happen given a certain set of conditions. Psychologists test a hypothesis by using a specific research method, such as naturalistic observation, a case study, a survey, or an experiment. Step 3: Design a Study Step 4: Collect Data Step 5: Apply Results to the Hypothesis • Research is replicable when others can repeat it and get the same results. When psychologists report what they have found through their research, they also describe in detail how they made their discoveries. This way, other psychologists can repeat the research to see if they can replicate the findings. Exercises 1. What is the main purpose of the scientific method? The scientific method is a standardized way of making observations, gathering data, forming theories, testing predictions, and interpreting results. Researchers make observations to describe and measure behavior. 2. The steps of the scientific method are (1) identify a problem or research question, (2) design a study, (3) collect data, (4) analyze data, (5) draw conclusions, and (6) communicate findings. Identify the step associated with each of the following activities: 3 Dr. Lopez noted "absent" or "present" by each student's name on his class roll at each class meeting. He recorded students' exam scores on his roll sheet as well. 5 Dr. Lopez hypothesized that students who consistently attend class get higher grades than those who are absent more often. 6 Dr. Lopez published the results of his study in the Journal of Community College Teaching. 4_ Dr. Lopez calculated the correlation between his students' rates of absence and their exam scores and found that the two variables were positively associated. 1_ Dr. Lopez planned to track students' attendance and exam scores and to correlate these two variables at the end of the semester. 2_ Dr. Lopez inferred that the data he collected supported his hypothesis regarding the relationship between attendance and exam scores. Objective 1.3 Describe the major schools of thought and theoretical perspectives in psychology. Key Terms Behaviorism: The school of psychology that views observerable, measurable behavior as the appropriate subject matter for psychology and emphasizes the key role of environment as a determinant of behavior. • The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2). Psychoanalysis: Freud's theory of personality that attributes our thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts, the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions. Humanistic psychology: A theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their person (psychological health.) and their potential for personal growth. • Positive Psychology - The scientific study of psychological characteristics that enable individuals and communities to thrive in the face of adversity. Cognitive Psychology: The branch of psychology that sees humans as active participants in their environment and is concerned with the scientific study of the mental processes involved in perception, attention, memory, language, problem solving, reasoning, and decision making. In short, cognitive psychology is concerned with the scientific study of the mind and mental processes. • Gestalt Psychology - The school of psychology that emphasizes that individuals perceive objects and patterns as whole units and that the perceived whole is more than the sum of its parts. • Information-Processing Theory - An approach to the study of mental structures and processes that uses the computer as a model for human thinking. Evolutionary psychology: The school of psychology that studies how human behaviors required for survival have adapted in the face of environmental pressures over the long course of evolution. Biological psychology: The school of psychology that looks for links between specific behaviors and equally specific biological processes that often help explain individual differences. • Neuroscience - An interdisciplinary field that combines the work of psychologists, biologists, biochemists, medical researchers, and others in the study of the structure and function of the nervous system. Sociocultural Approach: The view that social and cultural factors may be just as powerful as evolutionary and physiological factors in affecting behavior and mental processing and that these factors must be understood when interpreting the behavior of others. Exercises 1. Fill in the chart below. School of Thought Important Theorist(s) Main Ideas Behaviorism John b Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B F Skinner, Bandura Founder: John Watson & Ivan Pavlov Reason founded: Deemed introspection as unscientific Modern Concept: The role of environment in shaping and controlling behavior (Environmental factors) Impact on modern psychology: helped make psychology a natural science, rather than a branch of philosophy Psychoanalysi s Sigmund Freud Main Idea: Tries to bring unconscious thoughts and emotions to consciousness. It is therefore an "insight-oriented therapy." Modern Concept: The role of unconscious motivation and early childhood experiences in determining behavior and thought. (Emotions, unconscious motivations, early childhood experiences) Humanistic psychology Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers Main Idea: Humans are basically good and inherently motivated to self-actualize Modern Concept: The importance of an individual’s subjective experience as a key to understanding his or her behavior. (Subjective experiences, intrinsic motivation to achieve self-actualization) Cognitive psychology Jean Piaget Gestalt: Gestalt, Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler Main Idea: School of thought that focuses on how we take in, process, store, and retrieve information. Modern Concept: The role of mental processes—perception, thinking, and memory—that underlie behavior (Mental processes) Gestalt Psychology: Emphasizes that individuals perceive objects and patterns as whole units and that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Information processing approach: -Mental processes are similar to a computer -Information processes through our cognitive system in a series of stages, one at a time. Evolutionary psychology Charles Darwin, Leda Cosmides, John, Tooby, David Buss Main Idea: The discipline that considers psychological and behavioral phenomena as products of natural selection. Explores the implications of Darwinian theory for explaining behavior. Modern Concept: The roles of inherited tendencies that have proven adaptive in humans (Inherited traits that enhance adaptability) Biological Psychology (Physiological Psychology) Neuroscience: Krump Main Idea: Emphasizes the role of biological process and structure, as well as heredity, in explaining behavior (Biological structures, processes, heredity) Sociocultural approach Lesley Lambright and Gerald Patterson Main Idea: Emphasizes the social and cultural influences on behavior (Social and cultural variables) Objective 1.4 Define and explain the differences among the various descriptive research methods. Key Terms Naturalistic Observation: A descriptive research method in which researchers observe and record behavior in its natural setting, without attempting to influence or control it. Laboratory Observation: A descriptive research method in which behavior is studied in a laboratory setting. Case study: A single individual or a small number of persons are studied in great depth, usually over an extended period. A case study involves the use of observations, interviews, and sometimes psychological testing. Survey: A descriptive research method in which researchers use interviews and/or questionnaires to gather information about the attitudes, beliefs, experiences, or behaviors of a group of people. Correlation Method: A research method used to determine the relationship (correlation) between two events, characteristics, or behaviors. Correlation coefficient: A numerical value that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables; ranges from +1.00 (a perfect positive correlation) to −1.00 (a perfect negative correlation). Exercises. Method Uses Limitations Naturalisti c observatio n 1.) Gives the opportunity to study behavior in normal settings, where it occurs more naturally & spontaneously than it does under artificial and contrived laboratory conditions. Sometimes, naturalistic observation is the only feasible way to study behavior. 2.) It can be a good place to start when little is known about the phenomena under study 1.) Researchers must wait for events to occur; they cannot speed up or slow down the process. And because they have no control over the situation, researchers are unable to draw conclusions 2.) Observer bias, which is a distortion in researchers’ observations. Observer bias can result when researcher’s expectations about a situation cause them to see what they expect to see or to make incorrect inferences about what they observe. 3) Observational data are often difficult to quantify for statistical analyses. Laboratory observatio n 1.) Researchers can exert more control and use more precise equipment to measure responses. 2.) Can provide basis for hypotheses to be tested later. 1.) Laboratory behavior may not accurately reflect real-world behavior. Conclusions based on laboratory findings may not generalize beyond the walls of the laboratory itself and they can be expensive. Case study 1.) Their purpose is to provide a detailed description of some behavior or disorder. 2.) This method is particularly appropriate for studying people who have uncommon psychological or physiological disorders or brain injuries. 3.) Can provide basis for hypotheses to be tested later. 1.) Researchers cannot establish the cause of behavior observed in a case study. 2.) Observer bias is a potential problem. 3.) So few individuals are studied, researchers do not know how generalizable their findings may be to larger groups or to different cultures.