Business Research Techniques
Table of Contents
1. Module 1: The research process.........................................................................................................6
1.1. Why business research?...............................................................................................................6
1.1.1. Introduction..........................................................................................................................6
1.1.2. What is business research?...................................................................................................6
1.1.3. How about managerial intuition...........................................................................................6
1.1.4. How to evaluate research evidence......................................................................................7
1.2. The stages of the research process..............................................................................................7
1.2.1. Deductive vs. inductive research...........................................................................................7
1.2.2. The 7-step deductive research process.................................................................................8
2. Module 2: theory formation pt. 1.......................................................................................................9
2.1. A demarcated business problem..................................................................................................9
2.2. Problem relevance.......................................................................................................................9
2.2.1. Academic relevance..............................................................................................................9
2.2.2. Managerial relevance............................................................................................................9
2.3. Research questions....................................................................................................................10
2.3.1. The problem statement is an open-ended question...........................................................10
2.3.2. A problem statement identifies the study’s unit of analysis...............................................10
2.3.3. Expressed in terms of variables...........................................................................................10
2.3.4. Expressed in terms of relationships....................................................................................10
2.3.5. Problem statement.............................................................................................................10
2.3.6. Correlational and causal.....................................................................................................11
2.4. Writing: Problem background....................................................................................................11
2.4.1. Framing the research..........................................................................................................11
2.4.2. Identifying the problem......................................................................................................11
2.4.3. Academic relevance............................................................................................................11
2.4.4. Managerial relevance..........................................................................................................11
2.5. Literature review & Conceptual model......................................................................................12
2.5.1. Providing a literature review...............................................................................................12
2.5.2. The conceptual model........................................................................................................12
2.6. Writing: Literature review & conceptual model.........................................................................13
2.6.1. Literature review.................................................................................................................13
1
, 2.6.2. Conceptual model...............................................................................................................13
2.7. Research hypothesis..................................................................................................................14
2.7.1. What is a research hypothesis............................................................................................14
2.7.2. Link with statistics...............................................................................................................14
2.7.3. Directional vs. non-directional hypotheses.............................................................................14
2.7.4. What makes a good research hypothesis?..........................................................................14
2.7.5. Finding support for a hypothesis........................................................................................14
2.8. Writing: Research hypotheses...................................................................................................14
2.8.1. Choosing variables names...................................................................................................14
2.8.2. Guidelines to formulate research hypotheses....................................................................15
2.8.3. The formulation of a main-effect hypotheses.....................................................................15
2.8.4. How to word a mediator hypothesis...................................................................................15
2.8.5. How to word a moderator hypothesis................................................................................16
2.8.6. How to justify hypotheses...................................................................................................17
3. Module 3: Research strategies..........................................................................................................18
3.1. Three major research strategies................................................................................................18
3.1.1. Choosing a research strategy..............................................................................................18
3.1.2. Survey research......................................................................................................................18
3.1.3. Experimental research........................................................................................................18
3.1.4. Archival research.................................................................................................................18
3.2. Correlational vs. causal research strategies...............................................................................19
4. Module 4: Data collection and Analysis............................................................................................20
4.1. How to structure a data set?......................................................................................................20
4.1.1. Observations and variables.................................................................................................20
4.1.2. Ensuring your variables match your unit of analysis...........................................................20
4.2. Sampling....................................................................................................................................20
4.2.1. The sampling design...........................................................................................................21
4.2.2. Simple random sampling (probability)................................................................................22
4.2.3. Systematic sampling (probability).......................................................................................22
4.2.4. Stratified sampling (probability)..........................................................................................22
4.2.5. Cluster sampling (probability).............................................................................................22
4.2.6. Convenience sampling (nonprobability).............................................................................22
4.2.7. Quota sampling (nonprobability)........................................................................................23
4.2.8. Judgment sampling (nonprobability)..................................................................................23
4.2.9. Snowball sampling (nonprobability)...................................................................................23
4.3. Measurement............................................................................................................................23
2
, 4.3.1. What is measurement?.......................................................................................................23
4.3.2. Measurement levels...........................................................................................................24
4.3.3. The measurement level of 5- and 7-point scales................................................................24
4.4. Choosing statistical tests............................................................................................................24
4.4.1. Pearson’s correlation coefficient: a metric DV and IV.........................................................26
4.4.2. Chi-square tests: a categorical DV and IV............................................................................26
4.4.3. T-test: a metric DV and a categorical IV with two levels......................................................27
4.4.4. One-way ANOVA: a metric DV and a categorical IV with 3 or more levels..........................27
4.4.5. Regression analysis.............................................................................................................27
5. Module 5: Reliability and validity......................................................................................................28
5.1. Measurement reliability and validity.........................................................................................28
5.1.1. What is measurement or operationalization.......................................................................28
5.1.2. Reliability............................................................................................................................28
5.1.3. Validity................................................................................................................................28
5.1.4. Demonstrating reliability....................................................................................................28
5.1.5. Demonstrating internal consistency via Cronbach’s alpha..................................................29
5.1.6. Demonstrating measurement validity.................................................................................29
5.2. Internal and external validity.....................................................................................................29
5.2.1. Internal validity...................................................................................................................30
5.2.2. External validity..................................................................................................................30
5.2.3. Balancing internal vs. external validity................................................................................30
6. Survey Research................................................................................................................................31
6.1. Polls vs. surveys.........................................................................................................................31
6.1.1. Surveys vs. polls..................................................................................................................31
6.1.2. When to use survey research..............................................................................................31
6.2. Survey measures........................................................................................................................31
6.2.1. Introduction........................................................................................................................31
6.2.2. Open-ended versus closed-ended questions......................................................................31
6.2.3. Response formats for closed-ended questions...................................................................32
6.2.4. Single-item versus multi-item measures.............................................................................32
6.2.5. On-the-shelf versus own-developed scales.........................................................................33
6.2.6. Writing well-worded questions...........................................................................................33
6.3. Survey mode..............................................................................................................................33
6.3.1. Various survey modes.........................................................................................................33
6.3.2. Survey mode decision.........................................................................................................33
6.4. Reliability and validity in survey research..................................................................................34
3
, 6.4.1. Measurement reliability in survey research........................................................................34
6.4.2. Measurement validity in survey research...........................................................................34
6.4.3. Expert judgment & pilot testing to assess and improve measurement validity..................35
6.4.4. Internal validity in survey research.....................................................................................35
6.4.5. External validity in survey research.....................................................................................35
7. Module 7: Archival Research............................................................................................................36
7.1. Internal vs. external archival research.......................................................................................36
7.1.1. What is archival research (and data)...................................................................................36
7.1.2. When is archival research used...........................................................................................36
7.2. Piecing together archival data....................................................................................................36
7.2.1. Piecing together archival data.............................................................................................36
7.3. Reliability and validity in archival research................................................................................37
7.3.1. Measurement reliability in archival research......................................................................37
7.3.2. Missing data........................................................................................................................38
7.3.3. Inaccurately recorded data.................................................................................................38
7.3.4. Fake data.............................................................................................................................38
7.3.5. Composite measures..........................................................................................................39
7.3.6. Measurement validity in archival research.........................................................................39
7.3.7. Internal validity in archival research...................................................................................40
7.3.8. External validity in archival research...................................................................................40
8. Module 8: Experimental research.....................................................................................................41
8.1. Lab vs. field experiments...........................................................................................................41
8.1.1. Lab experiments.................................................................................................................41
8.1.2. Field experiments...................................................................................................................41
8.1.3. When to use lab and field experiments..............................................................................41
8.2. Experimental designs.................................................................................................................42
8.2.1. Terminology........................................................................................................................42
8.2.2. Within-subject vs. between-subjects designs.....................................................................42
8.2.3. Two basis forms of between-subjects designs....................................................................42
8.2.4. The factorial design.............................................................................................................42
8.2.5. Within-subjects, between-subjects, and mixed factorial designs.......................................42
8.2.6. Analyzing experimental designs..........................................................................................43
8.3. Reliability and validity in experiments.......................................................................................43
8.3.1. Measurement reliability in experimental research.............................................................43
8.3.2. Measurement validity in experimental research.................................................................43
8.3.3. Internal validity in experimental research...........................................................................44
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Table of Contents
1. Module 1: The research process.........................................................................................................6
1.1. Why business research?...............................................................................................................6
1.1.1. Introduction..........................................................................................................................6
1.1.2. What is business research?...................................................................................................6
1.1.3. How about managerial intuition...........................................................................................6
1.1.4. How to evaluate research evidence......................................................................................7
1.2. The stages of the research process..............................................................................................7
1.2.1. Deductive vs. inductive research...........................................................................................7
1.2.2. The 7-step deductive research process.................................................................................8
2. Module 2: theory formation pt. 1.......................................................................................................9
2.1. A demarcated business problem..................................................................................................9
2.2. Problem relevance.......................................................................................................................9
2.2.1. Academic relevance..............................................................................................................9
2.2.2. Managerial relevance............................................................................................................9
2.3. Research questions....................................................................................................................10
2.3.1. The problem statement is an open-ended question...........................................................10
2.3.2. A problem statement identifies the study’s unit of analysis...............................................10
2.3.3. Expressed in terms of variables...........................................................................................10
2.3.4. Expressed in terms of relationships....................................................................................10
2.3.5. Problem statement.............................................................................................................10
2.3.6. Correlational and causal.....................................................................................................11
2.4. Writing: Problem background....................................................................................................11
2.4.1. Framing the research..........................................................................................................11
2.4.2. Identifying the problem......................................................................................................11
2.4.3. Academic relevance............................................................................................................11
2.4.4. Managerial relevance..........................................................................................................11
2.5. Literature review & Conceptual model......................................................................................12
2.5.1. Providing a literature review...............................................................................................12
2.5.2. The conceptual model........................................................................................................12
2.6. Writing: Literature review & conceptual model.........................................................................13
2.6.1. Literature review.................................................................................................................13
1
, 2.6.2. Conceptual model...............................................................................................................13
2.7. Research hypothesis..................................................................................................................14
2.7.1. What is a research hypothesis............................................................................................14
2.7.2. Link with statistics...............................................................................................................14
2.7.3. Directional vs. non-directional hypotheses.............................................................................14
2.7.4. What makes a good research hypothesis?..........................................................................14
2.7.5. Finding support for a hypothesis........................................................................................14
2.8. Writing: Research hypotheses...................................................................................................14
2.8.1. Choosing variables names...................................................................................................14
2.8.2. Guidelines to formulate research hypotheses....................................................................15
2.8.3. The formulation of a main-effect hypotheses.....................................................................15
2.8.4. How to word a mediator hypothesis...................................................................................15
2.8.5. How to word a moderator hypothesis................................................................................16
2.8.6. How to justify hypotheses...................................................................................................17
3. Module 3: Research strategies..........................................................................................................18
3.1. Three major research strategies................................................................................................18
3.1.1. Choosing a research strategy..............................................................................................18
3.1.2. Survey research......................................................................................................................18
3.1.3. Experimental research........................................................................................................18
3.1.4. Archival research.................................................................................................................18
3.2. Correlational vs. causal research strategies...............................................................................19
4. Module 4: Data collection and Analysis............................................................................................20
4.1. How to structure a data set?......................................................................................................20
4.1.1. Observations and variables.................................................................................................20
4.1.2. Ensuring your variables match your unit of analysis...........................................................20
4.2. Sampling....................................................................................................................................20
4.2.1. The sampling design...........................................................................................................21
4.2.2. Simple random sampling (probability)................................................................................22
4.2.3. Systematic sampling (probability).......................................................................................22
4.2.4. Stratified sampling (probability)..........................................................................................22
4.2.5. Cluster sampling (probability).............................................................................................22
4.2.6. Convenience sampling (nonprobability).............................................................................22
4.2.7. Quota sampling (nonprobability)........................................................................................23
4.2.8. Judgment sampling (nonprobability)..................................................................................23
4.2.9. Snowball sampling (nonprobability)...................................................................................23
4.3. Measurement............................................................................................................................23
2
, 4.3.1. What is measurement?.......................................................................................................23
4.3.2. Measurement levels...........................................................................................................24
4.3.3. The measurement level of 5- and 7-point scales................................................................24
4.4. Choosing statistical tests............................................................................................................24
4.4.1. Pearson’s correlation coefficient: a metric DV and IV.........................................................26
4.4.2. Chi-square tests: a categorical DV and IV............................................................................26
4.4.3. T-test: a metric DV and a categorical IV with two levels......................................................27
4.4.4. One-way ANOVA: a metric DV and a categorical IV with 3 or more levels..........................27
4.4.5. Regression analysis.............................................................................................................27
5. Module 5: Reliability and validity......................................................................................................28
5.1. Measurement reliability and validity.........................................................................................28
5.1.1. What is measurement or operationalization.......................................................................28
5.1.2. Reliability............................................................................................................................28
5.1.3. Validity................................................................................................................................28
5.1.4. Demonstrating reliability....................................................................................................28
5.1.5. Demonstrating internal consistency via Cronbach’s alpha..................................................29
5.1.6. Demonstrating measurement validity.................................................................................29
5.2. Internal and external validity.....................................................................................................29
5.2.1. Internal validity...................................................................................................................30
5.2.2. External validity..................................................................................................................30
5.2.3. Balancing internal vs. external validity................................................................................30
6. Survey Research................................................................................................................................31
6.1. Polls vs. surveys.........................................................................................................................31
6.1.1. Surveys vs. polls..................................................................................................................31
6.1.2. When to use survey research..............................................................................................31
6.2. Survey measures........................................................................................................................31
6.2.1. Introduction........................................................................................................................31
6.2.2. Open-ended versus closed-ended questions......................................................................31
6.2.3. Response formats for closed-ended questions...................................................................32
6.2.4. Single-item versus multi-item measures.............................................................................32
6.2.5. On-the-shelf versus own-developed scales.........................................................................33
6.2.6. Writing well-worded questions...........................................................................................33
6.3. Survey mode..............................................................................................................................33
6.3.1. Various survey modes.........................................................................................................33
6.3.2. Survey mode decision.........................................................................................................33
6.4. Reliability and validity in survey research..................................................................................34
3
, 6.4.1. Measurement reliability in survey research........................................................................34
6.4.2. Measurement validity in survey research...........................................................................34
6.4.3. Expert judgment & pilot testing to assess and improve measurement validity..................35
6.4.4. Internal validity in survey research.....................................................................................35
6.4.5. External validity in survey research.....................................................................................35
7. Module 7: Archival Research............................................................................................................36
7.1. Internal vs. external archival research.......................................................................................36
7.1.1. What is archival research (and data)...................................................................................36
7.1.2. When is archival research used...........................................................................................36
7.2. Piecing together archival data....................................................................................................36
7.2.1. Piecing together archival data.............................................................................................36
7.3. Reliability and validity in archival research................................................................................37
7.3.1. Measurement reliability in archival research......................................................................37
7.3.2. Missing data........................................................................................................................38
7.3.3. Inaccurately recorded data.................................................................................................38
7.3.4. Fake data.............................................................................................................................38
7.3.5. Composite measures..........................................................................................................39
7.3.6. Measurement validity in archival research.........................................................................39
7.3.7. Internal validity in archival research...................................................................................40
7.3.8. External validity in archival research...................................................................................40
8. Module 8: Experimental research.....................................................................................................41
8.1. Lab vs. field experiments...........................................................................................................41
8.1.1. Lab experiments.................................................................................................................41
8.1.2. Field experiments...................................................................................................................41
8.1.3. When to use lab and field experiments..............................................................................41
8.2. Experimental designs.................................................................................................................42
8.2.1. Terminology........................................................................................................................42
8.2.2. Within-subject vs. between-subjects designs.....................................................................42
8.2.3. Two basis forms of between-subjects designs....................................................................42
8.2.4. The factorial design.............................................................................................................42
8.2.5. Within-subjects, between-subjects, and mixed factorial designs.......................................42
8.2.6. Analyzing experimental designs..........................................................................................43
8.3. Reliability and validity in experiments.......................................................................................43
8.3.1. Measurement reliability in experimental research.............................................................43
8.3.2. Measurement validity in experimental research.................................................................43
8.3.3. Internal validity in experimental research...........................................................................44
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